Autopsy and its role in Franco's dictatorship: a case of the last Republican mayor of the town Calera y Chozas (Toledo, Spain)

In the town of Calera y Chozas (Spain), five mass graves containing the remains of 28 individuals were discovered during a 2012 excavation. The witnesses and historical evidence indicated that the body of the last Republican mayor of the town, Felipe Fernández Varela, who had died in September 1939, was located in the mass grave designated as no. 1. Within this particular grave, only two bodies were found. Anthropological analysis showed that the first individual was significantly younger than 50 years, being the mayor's age at the time of death, while the age of the second individual was closer to 50. This second individual had a fractured skull, with a depression on the left parietal bone, and there were unmistakable signs of autopsy, which consisted of cut marks on the frontal bone and the sternal extremity of the right clavicle. Further historical research revealed documents concerning the autopsy performed on this individual. Although, according to the report, the cause of death was a stroke - the consequence of atherosclerosis and alcoholism - no reference was made to the forceful impact to the skull or intracranial bleeding. Considering the size of the fracture on the skull and the fact that there were no signs of bone healing, we believe that this impact, and not the stroke, was the direct cause of the death of the last Republican mayor. The mayor's case is a clear example of the role forensic medicine performed at the beginning of Franco's dictatorship. The task was not only to conceal the crime but also to tarnish the victim's name.

Hands-on training on exhumation - an approach to train forensic medicine residents in South Asia

Forensic anthropology utilises the knowledge gained from the examination of human remains. It is a requirement for forensic medicine residents to have knowledge of forensic anthropology and exhumation. Most of the forensic medicine residents in the Indian sub-continent graduate only with a theoretical knowledge and without a proper practical training of the process involved. We demonstrate how hands-on training would be beneficial.

Drug detection in decomposed cadavers confirms testimonial evidence in a case of serial homicides

Toxicology investigation on human's buried dead bodies is a rare and challenging task in the forensic field. As requested by the Judicial Authority, this work aimed to verify testimonial evidence that emerged during a criminal investigation involving multiple murder cases. The statements indicated an improper medical administration of one or more alleged drugs (propofol, morphine, diazepam, and midazolam) which presumably caused the deaths. Since the supposed crimes took place several years before, the task of the present work was to obtain results to support the charges. The analyses involved 18 biological samples taken from four exhumed bodies, three of which were female and one male, each buried in a different date and mode. Each sample was treated with specific purification and extraction techniques (LLE - SPE) after the addition of the deuterated analogs of the searched analytes (propofol-d17, morphine-d3, diazepam-d5, midazolam-d4) as internal standards. Afterwards, the extracts were subjected to qualitative analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-Electron Impact (GC/MS - EI), both in full scan and SIM mode. Propofol, morphine, and diazepam were identified in the corpses. It supports testimonials that were administered just before the deaths occurred.

Handling "war graves": The current situation in Austria

The Second Republic of Austria was established after the Second World War. As a former part of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and subsequently Nazi Germany, its history is strongly shaped by two world wars and the deaths of millions of people. The handling of human remains and graves of victims of National Socialist terror, members of the armed forces of nations participating in the world wars as well as civilian casualties that are located on today's federal territory, has been regulated by law since 1948. The responsibility officially lies with the Federal Ministry of the Interior / Department for War Graves Services. In practice, various institutions and interest groups have been involved in the identification and maintenance of so-called "war graves" and the recovery of human remains. This article aims to provide a brief outline of the current legal situation in Austria and discusses varying practices of handling war graves by presenting historical and recent examples.

Unidentified human remains discovered within Polish territory: Traces of the difficult history of the twentieth century

Poland, due to its geographical location, has been a place where the interests of neighbouring countries have converged. As a result, Polish territory has been the site of hostilities, totalitarian terror, and acts of genocide. Following the end of World War II, Poland became part of the so-called Eastern Bloc. A movement known as the anti-communist underground arose within Polish territory with the aim of conducting partisan warfare and political and propaganda activities against the occupiers. Partisans were victims of campaigns of liquidation; they lost their lives during interrogations, died in prisons, were sentenced to death by Polish courts, and were subsequently buried at unknown sites throughout the country. In connection with war and post-war events within Polish territory, the remains of victims of both World War II and post-war political repressions are being found to this day. In addition, remains derived from historical populations are being discovered as well as present-day remains belonging to missing persons or victims of criminal offences. A portion of the remains resulting from military operations and the post-war history of Poland are discovered by chance, but discovery of the burial sites of victims of communist crimes is often preceded by many years of research. International agreements and Polish legal regulations make it possible to search for victims of armed conflicts of various nationalities within the country. The process of identifying victims of armed conflicts, political terror and genocide can be carried out thanks to routine procedures for handling unidentified remains. Given the diversity (various historical periods, various nationalities) of the discovered remains, the elaborated procedures enable their dignified burial.

Investigation of WWII/postwar mass burials in Croatia-The implementation of the Croatian model of searching for the imprisoned and missing persons

The search for victims of World War Two (WWII) and the immediate aftermath period (postwar) in Croatia started together with the search for Homeland War victims in 1991. It continued through years, most often sporadically and in a non-homogenous way. It was just with the adoption of the Law on Research, Arrangement and Maintenance of Military Cemeteries, Cemeteries of Victims of WWII and Postwar Period in 2013 that the search became more structured and gained a formal governmental body responsible for the organization and supervision of the activities related to it. It was then that the well-established model of searching for Homeland War victims, based on many years of field work and research, started to be implemented in the search and analysis of WWII/postwar victims. The model represents a continuously growing and developing project which encompasses a wide variety of steps and procedures, from the investigation of alleged burial locations to the analysis and reburial of recovered mortal remains. From its implementation in 2016, it allowed the successful investigation of 1300 alleged burial locations, 484 field surveys, 42 exhumations and the recovery of remains of more than 1600 individuals. Besides, care for military cemeteries, marking of mass burial sites and arranging of international treaties are conducted in order to guarantee proper handling, relocation and repatriation of all those that perished during WWII and the postwar period.

Identification methods of the Royal Air Force Missing Research and Enquiry Service, 1944-52

In 1945, the British Air Ministry established the Royal Air Force (RAF) Missing Research and Enquiry Service, to trace all of the RAF's wartime overseas casualties. Although a broad range of search techniques were used to find the resting places of personnel who were either known to have been killed or listed as missing, positive identification remained largely contingent upon an exhumation of their remains. This paper explores the forensic pathology and forensics techniques known to and used by the Search Officers involved.

A First World War example of forensic archaeology

Between 1919 and 1921, the First World War battlefields of France and Belgium were searched by the British Army for the single graves and small cemeteries containing the bodies of British and Commonwealth soldiers. This process was called "concentration". When found, these graves were exhumed, the bodies within were examined to try and establish or confirm identification, and were subsequently reburied in newly built. Imperial War Grave Commission cemeteries. This task was carried out by military staff working for the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries. They had no forensic or medical experience and yet in less than three years they moved hundreds of thousands of graves, on a scale never seen before or since. Written records were issued for the soldiers working on exhumation in 1919 giving detailed instructions on how to search for buried or unburied individuals, the method to follow for excavating these graves and directions for the examination of bodies. These instructions are very similar to those used in modern forensic archaeology when excavating single or mass graves, or when dealing with multiple bodies following mass disasters. They show an awareness of the effects of human burials on the surrounding environment and address search and excavation problems that are still experienced. The example given here in France and Belgium is one of the earliest examples of Forensic Archaeology for humanitarian purposes, and the instructions issued are probably the earliest written instructions for a Forensic Archaeological excavation.

Blast injuries found on the exhumed remains of Polish postwar partisans killed by the Polish security service in 1946

Exhumed, badly decomposed human remains constitute very difficult research material. It requires a great deal of caution and critical judgment to analyze the nature of injuries, especially those resulting from an explosion. Scientific publications in the field of traumatology concerning injuries caused by the action of explosives mainly focus on the effects of contemporary terrorist or military activities. The results of this research regard mainly clinical medicine and the organization of healthcare. This article discusses the problems and solutions of determining the presence of injuries caused by explosions on badly decomposed human remains exhumed 70 years after death. To obtain optimal results in valuable injures estimation it is vital to apply efficient work methods i.e.: forensic team composed of experienced pathologist and anthropologist, archeological methodology and doubled examination and description of the remains (in the field and next in the autopsy room), detailed photographical documentation and protocol. The results of forensic examinations of the remains (58 fragments forming anatomical wholes), derived from not fewer than 30 individuals (MNI = 30), confirmed, despite the presence of severe taphonomic changes, the presence of injuries caused by an explosion. Forensic examination of the remains revealed a characteristic pattern of injuries resulting from the dismembering the bodies. We discovered typical traumatic amputation of the limbs, which corresponds to the aforementioned mechanism of injury. The findings confirm the thesis that in the area of the former Luftwaffe airport near Stary Grodków (Opole province, Poland), in September 1946, a group of Polish postwar partisans was liquidated.

Challenges associated with investigating a mass grave at the Korićani cliffs in central Bosnia

More than 200 men were killed at the Korićani Cliffs on Mount Vlašić in central Bosnia during the Bosnian war. The location of this mass grave remained unknown for a long time following the war, until 2008, when the Missing Persons Institute discovered a site containing the remains of approximately 60 individuals. Later, in September 2017, a new mass grave was identified at this location that had not been robbed and skeletal remains remained close to the location where the victims had died. This grave was also unique, by definition, as it was a primary inhumation site, but with a high degree of commingling and disarticulation, typical of secondary inhumation locations. The exhumation team found the first remains in this grave approximately one and a half meters beneath the rocks, while the extent of the commingling resulted in necessary modifications to standardized exhumation protocols. The search and recovery process primarily focused on skulls, groups of bones that remained in clothing, and any bones that were still connected to each other. In total, 86 skulls, 137 groups of bones that had at least 2 bones connected, and a couple of hundred small bones that could not be appointed to individuals, were retrieved. The material was taken to the Šejkovaca Identification Centre where the team took over 1,300 DNA samples for analysis and are now awaiting the results.

The impact of burial period on compact bone microstructure: Histological analysis of matrix loss and cell integrity in human bones exhumed from tropical soil

Human bone histological analysis is a useful tool to assess post mortem diagenesis and to predict successful nuclear DNA typing of forensic material. This study is part of a series of studies developed by the authors intended to improve the understanding of post mortem diagenesis and to develop applications for DNA analysis of skeletal species from tropical soils, in order to optimize genetic and anthropological protocols. The aim of this study was to analyze the impact of burial period on the integrity of exhumed compact bone microstructure from tropical climate. In fragments of exhumed human femora from 39 individuals from the same cemetery (exhumed group) and 5 fresh femora from routine autopsies (control group), sections stained by hematoxylin-eosin were analyzed in order to measure bone microstructural integrity. We found that bone integrity index in exhumed group was negatively influenced by the period of burial (r = -0.37, p < 0.05) and highly significantly decreased (p < 0.0001) in comparison to control group. The period of burial and nitric acid decalcification time was positively correlated (r = 0.51; p < 0.01), leading to imply a bone petrification process during inhumation. Exhumed group showed higher level of matrix bone loss (p < 0.001), as expected, and 87% of cases analyzed were "tunneled" as described by Hackett. Bone integrity index and bone matrix tend to decrease in bones buried in tropical soil between 8-14 years of inhumation. This period is short if we consider cases in which there are preserved bones interred for longer periods in other environments. These data must be considered in cases where genetic identification of exhumed skeletons from tropical environment is required. The diagenesis in these bones and the variations of results found are discussed, clarifying some challenges for forensic laboratories, especially in DNA analysis.

Analysis of male specific region of the human Y chromosome sheds light on historical events in Nazi occupied eastern Poland

In Poland, during the World War II, almost 3 million people were killed during the Nazi occupation, and about 570,000 during the Soviet occupation. Furthermore, historians have estimated that after the World War II at least 30,000 people were killed during the Stalinist regime in Poland (1944–1956). The exact number is unknown, because both executions and burials were kept secret. Thousands of people just vanished. As a response to those events, forensic scientists from the Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin in cooperation with historians from the Institute of National Remembrance started the project of the Polish Genetic Database of Victims of Totalitarianism, which aim is to identify victims killed in the years 1939–1956. Several exhumations were done under the project, with the biggest one done in Białystok. According to the information gathered by local historians, a detention centre in Białystok was the place of the secret burials in late 1940s and 1950s. Surprisingly, except few graves from the post-war period, most of the burials found in Białystok indicated that majority the victims were probably local civilians who died during the Nazi occupation. Unfortunately, data concerning what happened in the detention ward during that period of time is not very detailed. What was known is that people who got incarcerated were “political prisoners” what, according to Nazi politics, was based on their nationality, religion and activity against the Third Reich. The aim of this research was to test genetically the remains found in Białystok to determine their possible ethnic background, in order to shed new light on the victims and what happened in the Białystok detention centre during the Nazi occupation. The analysis of male specific region of the human Y chromosome shows that including phylogenetic analysis into the complex process led by the Polish Genetic Database of Victims of Totalitarianism may help with the final identification of hundreds of anonymous victims.

Identification of the skeletal remains of the Czech communist regime crime victim, priest Josef Toufar

Parish priest Josef Toufar died as a direct consequence of torture committed by Communist State Security Service agents, forcing him to confess that "miraculous" movement of crucifix above the main altar during the Holy Mass held in the Roman-Catholic church in Číhošť was staged by using a technical equipment. Josef Toufar was presumably buried in a mass grave at the cemetery in Prague-Ďáblice under a false name Josef Zouhar. In 2013 the Czech Bishops' Conference grant an approval to begin the process of his beatification. However, the beatification required the exhumation and identification of the remains. In this case report, we describe the process of searching, exhumation, and the combined A-STR/Y-STR DNA analysis of remains of Pater Josef Toufar. His identification was feasible due to kinship analysis: buccal swabs of three family members (niece, grand-niece, and grand-nephew) were available for testing.

Forensic examination after exhumation: Contribution and difficulties after more than thirty years of burial

We report a case of a Tunisian footballer who was found dead abroad under suspicious circumstances. The cause of death was, originally, attributed to a lightning strike. The corpse was buried without/autopsy. Over thirty years later, the family requested the exhumation to verify the identity and the cause of death. The exhumation was performed in 2011. DNA profiling from teeth and femur bone samples confirmed the identity of the deceased. The dry bone study revealed defects in the skull and the pelvis evoking firearm injuries. Post-mortem CT with three-dimensional (3-D) reconstruction allowed to confirm the characteristics of firearms injuries and to speculate about the number and the trajectories of potential shots. Nevertheless, the vitality of these injuries as well as the eventual fatal shot and the shooting distance could not be determined. Likewise, the type of the eventual weapon could not be clarified as there were no bullets or any metallic projectile fragments. Despite all doubts, the forensic explorations have allowed to verify the identity of the deceased, to evoke firearms injuries and, mainly, to deny the proposed cause of death after more than thirty years of burial. Moreover, the loss of soft tissues and bone fragility were the major obstacles.

Genetic Identification of Communist Crimes' Victims (1944-1956) Based on the Analysis of One of Many Mass Graves Discovered on the Powazki Military Cemetery in Warsaw, Poland

As the result of the communist terror in Poland, during years 1944-1956 more than 50,000 people died. Their bodies were buried secretly, and most places are still unknown. The research presents the results of identification of people buried in one of many mass graves, which were found at the cemetery Powązki Military in Warsaw, Poland. Exhumation revealed the remains of eight people, among which seven were identified genetically. Well-preserved molars were used for the study. Reference material was collected from the closest living relatives. In one case, an exhumation of victim's parents had to be performed. DNA from swabs was extracted with a PrepFiler^® BTA Forensic DNA Extraction Kit and organic method. Autosomal, Y-STR amplification, and mtDNA sequencing were performed. The biostatistical calculations resulted in LR values from 1608 to 928 × 10¹⁸ . So far, remains of more than 50 victims were identified.

Postcollisional cooling history of the Eastern and Southern Alps and its linkage to Adria indentation

Indentation of rigid blocks into rheologically weak orogens is generally associated with spatiotemporally variable vertical and lateral block extrusion. The European Eastern and Southern Alps are a prime example of microplate indentation, where most of the deformation was accommodated north of the crustal indenter within the Tauern Window. However, outside of this window only the broad late-stage exhumation pattern of the indented units as well as of the indenter itself is known. In this study we refine the exhumational pattern with new (U-Th-Sm)/He and fission-track thermochronology data on apatite from the Karawanken Mountains adjacent to the eastern Periadriatic fault and from the central-eastern Southern Alps. Apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He ages from the Karawanken Mountains range between 12 and 5 Ma and indicate an episode of fault-related exhumation leading to the formation of a positive flower structure and an associated peripheral foreland basin. In the Southern Alps, apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He and fission-track data combined with previous data also indicate a pulse of mainly Late Miocene exhumation, which was maximized along thrust systems, with highly differential amounts of displacement along individual structures. Our data contribute to mounting evidence for widespread Late Miocene tectonic activity, which followed a phase of major exhumation during strain localization in the Tauern Window. We attribute this exhumational phase and more distributed deformation during Adriatic indentation to a major change in boundary conditions operating on the orogen, likely due to a shift from a decoupled to a coupled system, possibly enhanced by a shift in convergence direction.

From nappe stacking to exhumation: Cretaceous tectonics in the Apuseni Mountains (Romania)

New Ar-Ar muscovite and Rb-Sr biotite age data in combination with structural analyses from the Apuseni Mountains provide new constraints on the timing and kinematics of deformation during the Cretaceous. Time-temperature paths from the structurally highest basement nappe of the Apuseni Mountains in combination with sedimentary data indicate exhumation and a position close to the surface after the Late Jurassic emplacement of the South Apuseni Ophiolites. Early Cretaceous Ar-Ar muscovite ages from structurally lower parts in the Biharia Nappe System (Dacia Mega-Unit) show cooling from medium-grade conditions. NE-SW-trending stretching lineation and associated kinematic indicators of this deformation phase (D1) are overprinted by top-NW-directed thrusting during D2. An Albian to Turonian age (110-90 Ma) is proposed for the main deformation (D2) that formed the present-day geometry of the nappe stack and led to a pervasive retrograde greenschist-facies overprint. Thermochronological and structural data from the Bihor Unit (Tisza Mega-Unit) allowed to establish E-directed differential exhumation during Early-Late Cretaceous times (D3.1). Brittle detachment faulting (D3.2) and the deposition of syn-extensional sediments indicate general uplift and partial surface exposure during the Late Cretaceous. Brittle conditions persist during the latest Cretaceous compressional overprint (D4).

Hair analysis of an unusual case of Chloroquine intoxication

A dead body of middle aged man was exhumed from 6.5 month earth-grave. Autopsy findings were non-specific as the body was completely putrefied. Deceased's scalp hair and kidney was sent for toxicological analysis. Hair sample (50mg) was incubated with 1M NaOH (2 ml). Chloroquine was detected in hair and kidney during basic drug screen performed on GC/MS. For confirmation and quantitation, chloroquine was extracted using Hypersep verify CX SPE cartridges while mass detector was operated in SIM mode using the ions of m/z 245.0, 290.1, 319.0 for chloroquine while ions of m/z 260 and 455 were monitored for nalorphine (internal standard). Chloroquine was present in high concentration in hair (211 ng/mg) as well as in kidney (37.3mg/kg). Moreover, chloroquine was not detected in the wash solvents, suggesting ingestion of the drug rather than an external contamination of hair. These findings strongly suggested the acute exposure of higher doses of chloroquine to the deceased before death.

The early history of Pallister-Hall syndrome-Buried treasure of a sort

Pallister-Hall syndrome was initially recognized under fairly unique circumstances involving exhumation of the very first case. The first two cases had dramatic and unusual features including a hypothalamic hamartoblastoma, imperforate anus, an unusual type of polydactyly with the extra digit being central, hypopituitarism with secondary hypoadrenalism, and lethality after birth (probably due to hypoadrenalism). Within a short time frame, four additional cases were identified. As the full spectrum and variability of anomalies was recognized, it became clear that it was not such a rare disorder. Shortly after familial cases were recognized, the responsible gene was identified at GLI3. However, since other different conditions also involved GLI3, elaborating the domains of the gene and the types of mutations needed to be defined in order to have a clear correlation of the genotype-phenotype relations.

The Polish Genetic Database of Victims of Totalitarianisms

This paper describes the creation of the Polish Genetic Database of Victims of Totalitarianism and the first research conducted under this project. On September 28th 2012, the Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin and the Institute of National Remembrance-Commission for Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation agreed to support the creation of the Polish Genetic Database of Victims of Totalitarianism (PBGOT, www.pbgot.pl). The purpose was to employ state-of-the-art methods of forensic genetics to identify the remains of unidentified victims of Communist and Nazi totalitarian regimes. The database was designed to serve as a central repository of genetic information of the victim's DNA and that of the victim's nearest living relatives, with the goal of making a positive identification of the victim. Along the way, PGBOT encountered several challenges. First, extracting useable DNA samples from the remains of individuals who had been buried for over half a century required forensic geneticists to create special procedures and protocols. Second, obtaining genetic reference material and historical information from the victim's closest relatives was both problematic and urgent. The victim's nearest living relatives were part of a dying generation, and the opportunity to obtain the best genetic and historical information about the victims would soon die with them. For this undertaking, PGBOT assembled a team of historians, archaeologists, forensic anthropologists, and forensic geneticists from several European research institutions. The field work was divided into five broad categories: (1) exhumation of victim remains and storing their biological material for later genetic testing; (2) researching archives and historical data for a more complete profile of those killed or missing and the families that lost them; (3) locating the victim's nearest relatives to obtain genetic reference samples (swabs), (4) entering the genetic data from both victims and family members into a common database; (5) making a conclusive, final identification of the victim. PGBOT's first project was to identify victims of the Communist regime buried in hidden mass graves in the Powązki Military Cemetery in Warsaw. Throughout 2012 and 2013, PGBOT carried out archaeological exhumations in the Powązki Military Cemetery that resulted in the recovery of the skeletal remains of 194 victims in several mass graves. Of the 194 sets of remains, more than 50 victims have been successfully matched and identified through genetic evidence.

Entomofauna of a buried body: study of the exhumation of a human cadaver in Buenos Aires, Argentina

This study focuses on insects and other arthropods sampled on the exhumation of an infant skeleton belonging to 'Prof. Dr. Rómulo Lambre' skeletal collection. The body was buried in soil inside a wooden coffin in a grave 40cm deep, in autumn, and stored in the cemetery deposit after exhumation. Death records were obtained from the cemetery archive. Samples of faunal remains were recovered from wrappings, clothes, bones and soil samples, and were identified at different taxonomic levels depending on the stage of conservation. The dominant taxon was the muscid fly Ophyra aenescens (Wiedemann). The relationships among the identified taxa and the moving of the corpse, from the burial context to the cemetery deposit, are discussed and used to create a hypothetical colonization sequence after death. The application of entomological data to anthropological research can provide valuable information for the interpretation of taphonomic processes and burial contexts.

Example of human individual identification from World War II gravesite

This paper presents the procedure elaborated by our team which was applied to the mode of identification of Red Army soldiers who were taken as prisoners by the German Army during World War II and deceased in captivity. In the course of our search the unmarked burial of ten Soviet prisoners of war was found. Historical, anthropological and genetic research conducted by us led to the personal identification of nine of them, including two by means of DNA analysis.

New geochronological constraints on the thermal and exhumation history of the Lesser and Higher Himalayan Crystalline Units in the Kullu-Kinnaur area of Himachal Pradesh (India)

New geochronological, petrological and structural data from the Beas-Sutlej area of Himachal Pradesh (India) are used to reconstruct the tectonothermal and exhumation history of this part of the Himalayan orogen. Sm-Nd garnet ages at 40.5 ± 1.3 Ma obtained on a pegmatoid from the inverse metamorphic High Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) in the Malana-Parbati area probably mark local melting during initial decompression. Ongoing exhumation in ductilely deformed leuco-gneiss is constrained by Sm-Nd garnet ages at 29 ± 1 Ma and white mica Rb-Sr ages around 24-20 Ma, while Bt Rb-Sr ages indicate a drop of regional metamorphic temperatures below 300 °C between 15 and 12 Ma. The deep Sutlej gorge exposes medium-grade paragneisses and Proterozoic orthogneisses of the Lesser Himalayan Crystalline (LHC), overthrust by the HHC along the Main Central Thrust (MCT). Mica cooling ages in the HHC are in the range of 14-11 Ma. Above the extruded wedge of the HHC, the Leo Pargil leucogranite and associated dykes intrude the Haimanta Unit (HU) below the weakly metamorphic Palaeo-Mesozoic sediments of the Tethyan Himalayas (TH). The Leo Pargil leucogranite yielded a mean Sm-Nd garnet age of 19 ± 1 Ma and Rb-Sr muscovite and biotite cooling ages between 16.4 and 11.6 Ma. Marked young extrusion of LHC units resulted in differentiated exhumation/cooling of more frontal parts of the orogen. Very young ductile deformation of LHC gneisses near Wangtu is constrained by late-kinematic pegmatite intrusions crosscutting the main mylonitic foliation. Sm-Nd garnet and Rb-Sr muscovite ages of these pegmatites range between 7.9 ± 0.9 and 5.5 ± 0.1 Ma. Published apatite FT ages down to 0.6 Ma also document accelerated diachronous sub-recent exhumation of different parts of the orogen. Together with geochronological data from the literature, the new results demonstrate that the HHC and the HU were deformed by shortening and crustal thickening during the Eohimalayan phase (Late Eocene-Oligocene), followed by a strong thermal overprint and intrusions of granitoids during the Neohimalayan Phase (Early to Middle Miocene). The LHC experienced amphibolite facies metamorphic conditions in the Late Miocene prior to extrusion between the HHC and the very low-grade Lesser Himalayan sediments. In conjunction with climate changes, young tectonic activity in this central part of the Himalayan orogen may have strongly influenced fluvial incision and erosion, and therefore, contributed to the accelerated uplift, as indicated by extensive accumulation of Late Miocene to Early Pleistocene fluviatile-lacustrine sediments in the Zanda basin, the Transhimalayan headwaters of the Sutlej, in Western Tibet.

Bruised witness: Bernard Spilsbury and the performance of early twentieth-century English forensic pathology

This article explores the status, apparatus and character of forensic pathology in the inter-war period, with a special emphasis on the 'people's pathologist', Bernard Spilsbury. The broad expert and public profile of forensic pathology, of which Spilsbury was the most prominent contemporary representative, will be outlined and discussed. In so doing, close attention will be paid to the courtroom strategies by which he and other experts translated their isolated post-mortem encounters with the dead body into effective testimony. Pathologists built a high-profile practice that transfixed the popular, legal and scientific imagination, and this article also explores, through the celebrated 1925 murder trial of Norman Thorne, how Spilsbury's courtroom performance focused critical attention on the practices of pathology itself, which threatened to destabilise the status of forensic pathology. In particular, the Thorne case raised questions about the interrelation between bruising and putrefaction as sources of interpretative anxiety. Here, the question of practice is vital, especially in understanding how Spilsbury's findings clashed with those of rival pathologists whose autopsies centred on a corpse that had undergone further putrefactive changes and that had thereby mutated as an evidentiary object. Examining how pathologists dealt with interpretative problems raised by the instability of their core investigative object enables an analysis of the ways in which pathological investigation of homicide was inflected with a series of conceptual, professional and cultural difficulties stemming in significant ways from the materiality of the corpse itself. This article presents early findings of a larger study of twentieth-century English homicide investigation which focuses on the interaction between two dominant forensic regimes: the first, outlined in part here, is a body-centred forensics, associated with the lone, 'celebrity' pathologist, his scalpel and the mortuary slab; the second is a 'forensics of things' centred on the laboratory and its associated technologies of trace analysis (hair, blood, fibres), deployed in closed technician-dominated spaces and in the regimentally managed crime scene. Future work will seek to illuminate the shifting landscape of English forensics by following the historical interplay between these two powerful investigative models.