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Schiavon A, Saba L, Catucci G, Petiti J, Puglisi S, Borin C, Reimondo G, Gilardi G, Giachino C, Terzolo M, Lo Iacono M. Albumin/Mitotane Interaction Affects Drug Activity in Adrenocortical Carcinoma Cells: Smoke and Mirrors on Mitotane Effect with Possible Implications for Patients' Management. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16701. [PMID: 38069023 PMCID: PMC10706292 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242316701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mitotane is the only drug approved for the treatment of adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). Although it has been used for many years, its mechanism of action remains elusive. H295R cells are, in ACC, an essential tool to evaluate drug mechanisms, although they often lead to conflicting results. METHODS Using different in vitro biomolecular technologies and biochemical/biophysical experiments, we evaluated how the presence of "confounding factors" in culture media and patient sera could reduce the pharmacological effect of mitotane and its metabolites. RESULTS We discovered that albumin, the most abundant protein in the blood, was able to bind mitotane. This interaction altered the effect of the drug by blocking its biological activity. This blocking effect was independent of the albumin source or methodology used and altered the assessment of drug sensitivity of the cell lines. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, we have for the first time demonstrated that albumin does not only act as an inert drug carrier when mitotane or its metabolites are present. Indeed, our experiments clearly indicated that both albumin and human serum were able to suppress the pharmacological effect of mitotane in vitro. These experiments could represent a first step towards the individualization of mitotane treatment in this rare tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurora Schiavon
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, 10043 Turin, Italy; (A.S.); (L.S.); (S.P.); (C.B.); (G.R.); (C.G.); (M.T.)
| | - Laura Saba
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, 10043 Turin, Italy; (A.S.); (L.S.); (S.P.); (C.B.); (G.R.); (C.G.); (M.T.)
| | - Gianluca Catucci
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, 10123 Turin, Italy; (G.C.); (G.G.)
| | - Jessica Petiti
- Division of Advanced Materials Metrology and Life Sciences, Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica (INRiM), 10135 Turin, Italy;
| | - Soraya Puglisi
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, 10043 Turin, Italy; (A.S.); (L.S.); (S.P.); (C.B.); (G.R.); (C.G.); (M.T.)
| | - Chiara Borin
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, 10043 Turin, Italy; (A.S.); (L.S.); (S.P.); (C.B.); (G.R.); (C.G.); (M.T.)
| | - Giuseppe Reimondo
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, 10043 Turin, Italy; (A.S.); (L.S.); (S.P.); (C.B.); (G.R.); (C.G.); (M.T.)
| | - Gianfranco Gilardi
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, 10123 Turin, Italy; (G.C.); (G.G.)
| | - Claudia Giachino
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, 10043 Turin, Italy; (A.S.); (L.S.); (S.P.); (C.B.); (G.R.); (C.G.); (M.T.)
| | - Massimo Terzolo
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, 10043 Turin, Italy; (A.S.); (L.S.); (S.P.); (C.B.); (G.R.); (C.G.); (M.T.)
| | - Marco Lo Iacono
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, 10043 Turin, Italy; (A.S.); (L.S.); (S.P.); (C.B.); (G.R.); (C.G.); (M.T.)
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Deng C, Gong D, Yang J, Ke B, Kang Y, Liu J, Zhang W. New insights for screening etomidate analogues in the human H295R cell model. Toxicol In Vitro 2020; 68:104934. [PMID: 32653408 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2020.104934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Etomidate is a sedative-hypnotic with excellent pharmacological effects, including rapid onset and hemodynamic stability. However, etomidate causes adrenocortical toxicity via binding to 11β-hydroxylase. Therefore, developing an approach to screen new etomidate analogues without endocrine-disrupting effects is urgently warranted. In this study, we employed the adrenocortical tumour cell line, NCI-H295R, as an in vitro system for etomidate analogues screening and detected the hormone levels in these cells using a high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method. After obtaining the concentration-response curves of hormone release, the "Adrenocortical Inhibitory Index" was used to evaluate the adrenocortical inhibitory potency of each compound. In summary, we demonstrate the benefits of our methods for screening of etomidate analogues that lack adrenocortical suppression, especially when this in vitro system is combined with in vivo testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoyi Deng
- Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Translational Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; West China Hospital, Sichuan University & The Research Units of West China (2018RU012), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Deying Gong
- Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Translational Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Jun Yang
- Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Translational Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; West China Hospital, Sichuan University & The Research Units of West China (2018RU012), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Bowen Ke
- Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Translational Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; West China Hospital, Sichuan University & The Research Units of West China (2018RU012), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Yi Kang
- Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Translational Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Jin Liu
- Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Translational Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; West China Hospital, Sichuan University & The Research Units of West China (2018RU012), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Wensheng Zhang
- Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Translational Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; West China Hospital, Sichuan University & The Research Units of West China (2018RU012), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China; National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China.
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Randazzo GM, Tonoli D, Strajhar P, Xenarios I, Odermatt A, Boccard J, Rudaz S. Enhanced metabolite annotation via dynamic retention time prediction: Steroidogenesis alterations as a case study. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1071:11-18. [PMID: 28479067 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Revised: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The development of metabolomics based on ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) now allows hundreds to thousands of metabolites to be simultaneously monitored in biological matrices. In that context, bioinformatics and multivariate data analysis (MVA) play a crucial role in the detection of relevant alteration patterns. However, sound biological interpretations must necessarily be supported by metabolite identifications to be definitive or at least have a high degree of confidence. Each compound, should be characterised by unique molecular properties. Among them, the exact mass and the chromatographic retention time are recognised as major and complementary criteria for compound identification. While the former is easily derived from the molecular structure, building generic and accurate retention time open databases still constitutes a critical issue because of the vast diversity of instruments, stationary phases and operating conditions in UHPLC-HRMS. Because several hits matching a molecular formula obtained from an exact mass and an isotopic pattern are often generated for each analyte, this methodology rarely allows a unique and unambiguous molecular identity to be gained. This work aims to provide a flexible solution to facilitate reliable compound annotation based on retention time in reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC). It proposes an innovative approach based on the chromatographic linear solvent strength (LSS) theory, allowing retention times under any gradient conditions at fixed temperature, stationary phase and mobile phase type to be predicted. Starting from a subset of the Human Metabolite Database (HMDB), a new dynamic database involving LSS parameters was developed. A real case study involving steroidogenesis alterations due to forskolin exposure was conducted using the adrenal H295R OECD reference cell model for endocrine disruptor screening. The prediction of retention times was successfully achieved, facilitating steroid identification. An automated procedure which implements the compound annotation levels encouraged by the Metabolite Standard Initiative (MSI) and the Coordination of Standards in Metabolomics (COSMOS) was also developed to speed up the process and enhance the data reusability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Marco Randazzo
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - David Tonoli
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland; Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology (SCAHT), Universities of Basel and Geneva, 4055 Basel, Switzerland; Human Protein Sciences Department, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Petra Strajhar
- Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology (SCAHT), Universities of Basel and Geneva, 4055 Basel, Switzerland; Division of Molecular and Systems Toxicology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ioannis Xenarios
- Vital-IT/Swiss-Prot Groups, SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Alex Odermatt
- Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology (SCAHT), Universities of Basel and Geneva, 4055 Basel, Switzerland; Division of Molecular and Systems Toxicology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Julien Boccard
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Serge Rudaz
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
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Bistakova J, Forgacs Z, Bartos Z, Szivosne MR, Jambor T, Knazicka Z, Tvrda E, Libova L, Goc Z, Massanyi P, Lukac N. Effects of 4-nonylphenol on the steroidogenesis of human adrenocarcinoma cell line (NCI-H295R). J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 2017; 52:221-227. [PMID: 27835057 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2016.1246936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the human H295R adrenocarcinoma cell line was exposed to different concentrations (0.04, 0.2, 1.0, 2.5 or 5 µg/mL) of nonylphenol (NP) to investigate its impact on the inhibition or induction of the steroid hormones production during 48 h of in vitro culture. The hormone production was measured using ELISA kits. Results of this in vitro study suggest various effect of nonylphenol in relatively low concentrations on the selected steroid hormones production by the human H295R adrenocarcinoma cell line. The inhibiting impact on progesterone and androstenedione production was observed. The amount of progesterone was significantly decreased at 1.0, 2.5 and 5 µg/mL NP. Equally, the androstenedione production significantly decreased at 5 µg/mL NP. On the other hand, the amount of testosterone and 17β-estradiol was induced after nonylphenol exposition. The significant increase of testosterone level was found out at treatment with 5 µg/mL NP. 17β-estradiol production significantly increased at the doses of 2.5 and 5 µg/mL NP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Bistakova
- a Department of Animal Physiology , Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Slovak University of Agriculture , Nitra , Slovak Republic
| | - Zsolt Forgacs
- b National Institute of Chemical Safety , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Zsuzsa Bartos
- b National Institute of Chemical Safety , Budapest , Hungary
| | | | - Tomas Jambor
- a Department of Animal Physiology , Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Slovak University of Agriculture , Nitra , Slovak Republic
| | - Zuzana Knazicka
- c AgroBioTech Research Centre, Slovak University of Agriculture , Nitra , Slovak Republic
| | - Eva Tvrda
- a Department of Animal Physiology , Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Slovak University of Agriculture , Nitra , Slovak Republic
| | - Lubica Libova
- d St. Ladislav Institute of Health and Social Sciences, Nove Zamky, St. Elizabeth University of Health and Social Sciences , Bratislava , Slovak Republic
| | - Zofia Goc
- e Institute of Biology, Faculty of Geography and Biology, Pedagogical University of Cracow , Cracow , Poland
| | - Peter Massanyi
- a Department of Animal Physiology , Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Slovak University of Agriculture , Nitra , Slovak Republic
- e Institute of Biology, Faculty of Geography and Biology, Pedagogical University of Cracow , Cracow , Poland
| | - Norbert Lukac
- a Department of Animal Physiology , Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Slovak University of Agriculture , Nitra , Slovak Republic
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Nagy Z, Marta A, Butz H, Liko I, Racz K, Patocs A. Modulation of the circadian clock by glucocorticoid receptor isoforms in the H295R cell line. Steroids 2016; 116:20-27. [PMID: 27725099 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Revised: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral clocks are set by different nervous, hormonal and metabolic stimuli, and regulate the circadian expression of several genes. We investigated whether a peripheral clock could be induced in the human adrenocortical cell line H295R and whether glucocorticoid receptor isoforms (GRα and GRß) are involved in this clock system. After synchronization of cells with serum shock, the rhythmic oscillation of clock genes PER1, PER2, REV-ERBα, and ARNTL was confirmed. In addition, H295R cells even without serum shock showed rhythmic expression of PER1, PER2, CRY1 and ARNTL. Glucocorticoid treatment induced a rapid response of PER1, PER2 and CRY1 in a GRα-dependent manner. Continuous glucocorticoid stimulation after 6h caused suppression of REV-ERBα. Administration of a GR antagonist, RU486, disrupted the circadian oscillation of clock genes and prevented the acute changes in PER1, PER2 and CRY1 levels. Overexpression of the GRß isoform alone did not alter the expression of the examined clock genes, but did prevent the GRα-related suppression of REV-ERBα. These alterations occurred independently from ACTH and CRH. Our data demonstrate that a peripheral clock system is present in a human adrenocortical cell line and that periodic oscillations of clock genes are influenced by glucocorticoids, mainly through GRα.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsolt Nagy
- 2nd Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary; Hungarian Academy of Sciences-Semmelweis University "Lendulet" Hereditary Endocrine Tumors Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Alexa Marta
- 2nd Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Henriett Butz
- Hungarian Academy of Sciences-Semmelweis University Molecular Medicine Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Istvan Liko
- Hungarian Academy of Sciences-Semmelweis University "Lendulet" Hereditary Endocrine Tumors Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Karoly Racz
- 2nd Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary; Hungarian Academy of Sciences-Semmelweis University Molecular Medicine Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Attila Patocs
- Hungarian Academy of Sciences-Semmelweis University "Lendulet" Hereditary Endocrine Tumors Research Group, Budapest, Hungary; Department of Laboratory Medicine Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.
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Zhang Q, Wang J, Zhu J, Liu J, Zhang J, Zhao M. Assessment of the endocrine-disrupting effects of short-chain chlorinated paraffins in in vitro models. Environ Int 2016; 94:43-50. [PMID: 27208783 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), which are candidate persistent organic pollutants (POPs) according to the Stockholm Convention, are of great concern because of their persistent bioaccumulation, long-range transport and potential adverse health effects. However, data on the endocrine-disrupting effects of SCCPs remain scarce. In this study, we first adopted two in vitro models (reporter gene assays and H295R cell line) to investigate the endocrine-disrupting effects of three SCCPs (C10-40.40%, C10-66.10% and C11-43.20%) via receptor mediated and non-receptor mediated pathway. The dual-luciferase reporter gene assay revealed that all test chemicals significantly induced estrogenic effects, which were mediated by estrogen receptor α (ERα), in the following order: C11-43.20%>C10-66.10%>C10-40.40%. Notably, C10-40.40% and C10-66.10% also demonstrated remarkable anti-estrogenic activities. Only C11-43.20% showed glucocorticoid receptor-mediated (GR) antagonistic activity, with a RIC20 value of 2.6×10(-8)mol/L. None of the SCCPs showed any agonistic or antagonistic activities against thyroid receptor β (TRβ). Meanwhile, all test SCCPs stimulated the secretion of 17β-estradiol (E2). Both C10-66.10% and C11-43.20% increased the production of cortisol at a high level in H295R cell lines. In order to explore the possible mechanism underlying the endocrine-disrupting effects of SCCPs through the non-receptor pathway, the mRNA levels of 9 steroidogenic genes were measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). StAR, 17βHSD, CYP11A1, CYP11B1, CYP19 and CYP21 were upregulated in a concentration-dependent manner by all chemicals. The data provided here emphasized that comprehensive assessments of the health and ecological risks of emerging contaminants, such as SCCPs, are of great concern and should be investigated further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Zhang
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China; College of Environment & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jinghua Wang
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Jianqiang Zhu
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Jing Liu
- College of Environment & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jianyun Zhang
- College of Environment & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Meirong Zhao
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China.
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Abstract
The adrenal has been neglected in endocrine disruption regulatory testing strategy. The adrenal is a vital organ, adrenocortical insufficiency is recognised in life threatening "adrenal crises" and Addison's disease, and the consequences of off-target toxicological inhibition of adrenocortical steroidogenesis is well recognised in clinical medicine, where drugs such as aminoglutethimide and etomidate killed patients via unrecognised inhibition of adrenocortical steroidogenic enzymes (e.g. CYP11B1) along the cortisol and aldosterone pathways. The consequences of adrenocortical dysfunction during early development are also recognised in the congenital salt wasting and adrenogenital syndromes presenting neonatally, yet despite a remit to focus on developmental and reproductive toxicity mechanisms of endocrine disruption by many regulatory agencies (USEPA EDSTAC; REACH) the assessment of adrenocortical function has largely been ignored. Further, every step in the adrenocortical steroidogenic pathway (ACTH receptor, StAR, CYP's 11A1, 17, 21, 11B1, 11B2, and 3-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase Δ4,5 isomerase) is known to be a potential target with multiple examples of chemicals inhibiting these targets. Many of these chemicals have been detected in human and wildlife tissues. This raises the question of whether exposure to low level environmental chemicals may be affecting adrenocortical function. This review examines the omission of adrenocortical testing in the current regulatory frameworks; the characteristics that make the adrenal cortex particularly vulnerable to toxic insult; chemicals and their toxicological targets within the adrenocortical steroidogenic pathways; the typical manifestations of adrenocortical toxicity (e.g. human iatrogenically induced pharmacotoxicological adrenal insufficiency, manifestations in typical mammalian regulatory general toxicology studies, manifestations in wildlife) and models of adrenocortical functional assessment. The utility of the in vivo ACTH challenge test to prove adrenocortical competency, and the H295R cell line to examine molecular mechanisms of steroidogenic pathway toxicity, are discussed. Finally, because of the central role of the adrenal in the physiologically adaptive stress response, the distinguishing features of stress, compared with adrenocortical toxicity, are discussed with reference to the evidence required to claim that adrenal hypertrophy results from stress rather than adrenocortical enzyme inhibition which is a serious adverse toxicological finding. This article is part of a special issue entitled 'Endocrine disruptors and steroids'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip W Harvey
- Toxicology Department, Covance Laboratories Ltd., Otley Road, Harrogate, North Yorkshire HG3 1PY, United Kingdom.
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