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Gao ZS, Zhang CJ, Xia N, Tian H, Li DY, Lin JQ, Mei XF, Wu C. Berberine-loaded M2 macrophage-derived exosomes for spinal cord injury therapy. Acta Biomater 2021; 126:211-223. [PMID: 33722788 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes immune activation of resident macrophages/microglia. Activated macrophages/microglia have two different phenotypes, the pro-inflammatory classically activated (M1) phenotype and the anti-inflammatory alternatively activated (M2) phenotype. M1 phenotype macrophages/microglia are the key factor in inflammation. The treatment of SCI remains a huge challenge due to the nontargeting and inefficiency of anti-inflammatory drugs through the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The purpose of this experiment was to design M2-type primary peritoneal macrophages exosomes (Exos) as a drug carrier for berberine (Ber), which can be efficiently targeted to deliver drugs to the injured spinal cord due to the natural advantage of Exos across the BBB. The Exos with particle size of 125±12 nm were loaded with by an ultrasonic method and the drug loading reached 17.13 ±1.64%. The Ber release experiment showed that the loaded sample (Exos-Ber) exhibited sustained release effect, and the cumulative release amount reached 71.44±2.86% within 48 h. In vitro and in vivo experiments confirmed that the Exos-Ber could decrease the M1 protein marker iNOS, elevate the M2 protein marker CD206 and reduce inflammatory and apoptotic cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, Caspase 9, Caspase 8), which showed that Exos-Ber had a good anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effect by inducing macrophages/microglia from the M1 phenotype to M2 phenotype polarization. Moreover, the motor function of SCI mice was significantly improved after Exos-Ber treatment, indicating that Exos-Ber is a potential agent for SCI therapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Efficient targeting strategy for drug delivery. In addition to good biocompatibility and stealth ability, M2 macrophage-derived Exosomes present natural inflammatory targeting ability. The inflammatory microenvironment after spinal cord injury provides motivation for the targeting of exosomes. Natural drug carrier with higher safety. With the rapid development of nanomaterials, drug carriers have become more selective. However, due to the special microenvironment after central nervous system damage, some non-degradable inorganic materials will increase the pressure of self-healing and even secondary damage to neurons, which has been solved by the emergence of exosomes. Some previous studies used tumor cell line exosomes as drug carriers, but the carcinogenic factors carried by themselves have extremely high hidden dangers, and endogenous macrophage exosomes have absolute advantages over their safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhan-Shan Gao
- Pharmacy School, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China.
| | - Chuan-Jie Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affifiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China.
| | - Nan Xia
- Pharmacy School, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China.
| | - He Tian
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China.
| | - Dao-Yong Li
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affifiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China.
| | - Jia-Quan Lin
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affifiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China.
| | - Xi-Fan Mei
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affifiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China.
| | - Chao Wu
- Pharmacy School, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China.
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Kong G, Liu J, Li R, Lin J, Huang Z, Yang Z, Wu X, Huang Z, Zhu Q, Wu X. Ketone Metabolite β-Hydroxybutyrate Ameliorates Inflammation After Spinal Cord Injury by Inhibiting the NLRP3 Inflammasome. Neurochem Res 2021; 46:213-229. [PMID: 33108630 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-020-03156-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Ketogenic diet (KD) has been shown to be beneficial in a range of neurological disorders, with ketone metabolite β-hydroxybutyrate (βOHB) reported to block the nucleotide oligomerization domain-like receptor family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in bone marrow-derived macrophages. In this study, we show that pretreatment with KD or in situ βOHB suppressed macrophages/microglia activation and the overproduction of inflammatory cytokines, while KD downregulated the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome. Moreover, KD promoted macrophages/microglia transformation from the M1 phenotype to the M2a phenotype following spinal cord injury (SCI) in the in vivo study. Rats in the KD group demonstrated improved behavioral and electrophysiological recovery after SCI when compared to those rats in the standard diet group. The in vitro study performed on BV2 cells indicated that βOHB inhibited an LPS+ATP-induced inflammatory response and decreased NLRP3 protein levels. Our data demonstrated that pretreatment with KD attenuated neuroinflammation following SCI, probably by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome and shifting the activation state of macrophages/microglia from the M1 to the M2a phenotype. Therefore, the ketone metabolite βOHB might provide a potential future therapeutic strategy for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganggang Kong
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1838 North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, China
- Department of Spine Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junhao Liu
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1838 North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, China
| | - Rong Li
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1838 North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, China
| | - Junyu Lin
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1838 North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, China
| | - Zucheng Huang
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1838 North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhou Yang
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1838 North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiuhua Wu
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1838 North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiping Huang
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1838 North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, China
| | - Qingan Zhu
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1838 North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, China.
| | - Xiaoliang Wu
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1838 North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, China.
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Fan H, Tang HB, Chen Z, Wang HQ, Zhang L, Jiang Y, Li T, Yang CF, Wang XY, Li X, Wu SX, Zhang GL. Inhibiting HMGB1-RAGE axis prevents pro-inflammatory macrophages/microglia polarization and affords neuroprotection after spinal cord injury. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:295. [PMID: 33036632 PMCID: PMC7547440 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01973-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Spinal cord injury (SCI) favors a persistent pro-inflammatory macrophages/microglia-mediated response with only a transient appearance of anti-inflammatory phenotype of immune cells. However, the mechanisms controlling this special sterile inflammation after SCI are still not fully elucidated. It is known that damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) released from necrotic cells after injury can trigger severe inflammation. High mobility group box 1(HMGB1), a ubiquitously expressed DNA binding protein, is an identified DAMP, and our previous study demonstrated that reactive astrocytes could undergo necroptosis and release HMGB1 after SCI in mice. The present study aimed to explore the effects and the possible mechanism of HMGB1on macrophages/microglia polarization, as well as the neuroprotective effects by HMGB1 inhibition after SCI. Methods In this study, the expression and the concentration of HMGB1 was determined by qRT-PCR, ELISA, and immunohistochemistry. Glycyrrhizin was applied to inhibit HMGB1, while FPS-ZM1 to suppress receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE). The polarization of macrophages/microglia in vitro and in vivo was detected by qRT-PCR, immunostaining, and western blot. The lesion area was detected by GFAP staining, while neuronal survival was examined by Nissl staining. Luxol fast blue (LFB) staining, DAB staining, and western blot were adopted to evaluate the myelin loss. Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan (BBB) scoring and rump-height Index (RHI) assay was applied to evaluate locomotor functional recovery. Results Our data showed that HMGB1 can be elevated and released from necroptotic astrocytes and HMGB1 could induce pro-inflammatory microglia through the RAGE-nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway. We further demonstrated that inhibiting HMGB1 or RAGE effectively decreased the numbers of detrimental pro-inflammatory macrophages/microglia while increased anti-inflammatory cells after SCI. Furthermore, our data showed that inhibiting HMGB1 or RAGE significantly decreased neuronal loss and demyelination, and improved functional recovery after SCI. Conclusions The data implicated that HMGB1-RAGE axis contributed to the dominant pro-inflammatory macrophages/microglia-mediated pro-inflammatory response, and inhibiting this pathway afforded neuroprotection for SCI. Thus, therapies designed to modulate immune microenvironment based on this cascade might be a prospective treatment for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Fan
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710004, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neurosciences, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hai-Bin Tang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Xi'an Central Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 161 Xi Wu Road, Xi'an, 710003, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhe Chen
- Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hu-Qing Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710004, Shaanxi, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710004, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yu Jiang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710004, Shaanxi, China
| | - Tao Li
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710004, Shaanxi, China
| | - Cai-Feng Yang
- Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiao-Ya Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710004, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xia Li
- Department of Nephrology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710004, Shaanxi, China
| | - Sheng-Xi Wu
- Institute of Neurosciences, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Gui-Lian Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710004, Shaanxi, China.
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Fan H, Tang HB, Shan LQ, Liu SC, Huang DG, Chen X, Chen Z, Yang M, Yin XH, Yang H, Hao DJ. Quercetin prevents necroptosis of oligodendrocytes by inhibiting macrophages/microglia polarization to M1 phenotype after spinal cord injury in rats. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16:206. [PMID: 31699098 PMCID: PMC6839267 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-019-1613-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Oligodendrocytes (OLs) death after spinal cord injury (SCI) contributes to demyelination, even leading to a permanent neurological deficit. Besides apoptosis, our previous study demonstrated that OLs underwent receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase 3(RIP3)/mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL)-mediated necroptosis. Considering that necroptosis is always accompanied with pro-inflammatory response and quercetin has long been used as anti-inflammatory agent, in the present study we investigated whether quercetin could inhibit necroptosis of OLs and suppress the M1 macrophages/microglia-mediated immune response after SCI as well as the possible mechanism. Methods In this study, we applied quercetin, an important flavonoid component of various herbs, to treat rats with SCI and rats injected with saline were employed as the control group. Locomotor functional recovery was evaluated using Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan (BBB) scoring and rump-height Index (RHI) assay. In vivo, the necroptosis, apoptosis, and regeneration of OLs were detected by immunohistochemistry, 5′-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation. The loss of myelin and axons after SCI were evaluated by Luxol fast blue (LFB) staining, immunohistochemistry, and electron microscopic study. The polarization of macrophages/microglia after SCI and the underlying mechanisms were detected by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry. In vitro, the ATP and reactive oxygen species (ROS) level examination, propidium iodide (PI) labeling, and Western blotting were used to analyze the necroptosis of cultured OLs, while the signaling pathways-mediated polarization of cultured macrophages/microglia was detected by qRT-PCR and Western blotting. Results We demonstrated that quercetin treatment improved functional recovery in rats after SCI. We then found that quercetin significantly reduced necroptosis of OLs after SCI without influencing apoptosis and regeneration of OLs. Meanwhile, myelin loss and axon loss were also significantly reduced in quercetin-treated rats, as compared to SCI + saline control. Further, we revealed that quercetin could suppress macrophages/microglia polarized to M1 phenotype through inhibition of STAT1 and NF-κB pathway in vivo and in vitro, which contributes to the decreased necroptosis of OLs. Conclusions Quercetin treatment alleviated necroptosis of OLs partially by inhibiting M1 macrophages/microglia polarization after SCI. Our findings suggest that necroptosis of OLs may be a potential therapeutic target for clinical SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Fan
- Shaanxi Spine Medicine Research Center, Translational Medicine Center, Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 555 You Yi Dong Road, Xi'an, 710054, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neurosciences, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hai-Bin Tang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Xi'an Central Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 161 Xi Wu Road, Xi'an, 710003, Shaanxi, China
| | - Le-Qun Shan
- Shaanxi Spine Medicine Research Center, Translational Medicine Center, Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 555 You Yi Dong Road, Xi'an, 710054, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shi-Chang Liu
- Shaanxi Spine Medicine Research Center, Translational Medicine Center, Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 555 You Yi Dong Road, Xi'an, 710054, Shaanxi, China
| | - Da-Geng Huang
- Shaanxi Spine Medicine Research Center, Translational Medicine Center, Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 555 You Yi Dong Road, Xi'an, 710054, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xun Chen
- Department of Bone Microsurgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 555 You Yi Dong Road, Xi'an, 710054, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhe Chen
- Shaanxi Spine Medicine Research Center, Translational Medicine Center, Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 555 You Yi Dong Road, Xi'an, 710054, Shaanxi, China
| | - Ming Yang
- Shaanxi Spine Medicine Research Center, Translational Medicine Center, Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 555 You Yi Dong Road, Xi'an, 710054, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xin-Hua Yin
- Shaanxi Spine Medicine Research Center, Translational Medicine Center, Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 555 You Yi Dong Road, Xi'an, 710054, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hao Yang
- Shaanxi Spine Medicine Research Center, Translational Medicine Center, Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 555 You Yi Dong Road, Xi'an, 710054, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Ding-Jun Hao
- Shaanxi Spine Medicine Research Center, Translational Medicine Center, Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 555 You Yi Dong Road, Xi'an, 710054, Shaanxi, China.
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