Identifying innovation discourses for nitrogen management in the sugarcane sector in Great Barrier Reef catchments using Q-methodology

Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) run-off from sugarcane farms along Australia's Great Barrier Reef (GBR) coast is implicated in poor catchment water quality and putting pressure on reef health. Reducing DIN is the focus of innovative policies to cut pollution and to maximize social benefit across economic sectors. We use Q-methodology to gain insight into discourses present amongst sugarcane sector stakeholders in GBR catchments. Issue statements, which we aligned with concepts from the Theory of Planned Behaviour, were ranked and correlations identified to generate factors that informed our descriptions of discourses. We found four discourse groups we called sector stalwarts, scientific rationalists, economic maximisers, and sector defenders. We also collected respondent demographic data from which we could judge the propensities of respondent groups to identify with different discourses. This information can help industry innovators and policymakers identify the attributes, mindsets, and appropriate language metaphors for engaging stakeholders in reducing catchment pollution.

Environmental management on agricultural land: Cost benefit analysis of an integrated cropping system for provision of environmental public goods

Agricultural land covers a significant portion of the earths land surface. Although the predominant function of agricultural land is food production, environmental public goods, such as biodiversity or soil maintenance, are also essential for long-term sustainability. In arable farms the type of cropping system used has a major impact on delivery of these environmental goods. Low input, integrated and regenerative cropping systems aim to improve environmental outcomes of arable farming, with the goal of reducing external inputs by supporting internal regulation of system processes. However, the production of environmental goods does not have an immediate market value to the farmer, and often comes at a cost, particularly in the early stages of transition to a more sustainable system. We estimate the on-farm costs and benefits of an integrated cropping system during the first six years of transition from intensive conventional management at the Centre for Sustainable Cropping in north east Scotland. Although integrated cropping had better environmental outcomes, all crops had higher financial margins in the conventional system compared to the integrated system, which suffered a loss of over £500 per ha per year across the full rotation. This indicates that financial incentives are likely to be important to allow farmers to transition towards a more environmentally friendly cropping system.

The monetary facilities payment for ecosystem services as an approach to restore the Degraded Urmia Lake in Iran

This study analyzed the potential use of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) as a strategy for improving water supply management. This study focused on the Siminehroud Sub-basin due to its high importance to the Basin of Urmia Lake (UL). Siminehroud is the second provider of water (by volume) to Urmia Lake. To evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of a PES scheme, the current land use map was extracted using satellite imagery. In addition, the two algorithms of Support Vector Machines (SVMs) and Maximum Likelihood (ML) are used for Landsat images classification, rather than analyzing the relationship between land use and ecosystem services. Then, the most relevant ecosystem services provided in the region were evaluated using the Benefit Transfer Method. In the last step, by designing and implementing a survey, on the one hand, the local farmers' Willingness to Accept (WTA) cash payments for reducing the area they cultivate, and on the other hand, the farmers' Willingness to Pay (WTP) for managing the water consumption were determined. The results illustrated that the WTA program is more acceptable among the beneficiaries. It is also notable that this program needs very high governmental funding. Furthermore, the results of the program indicate that the land area out of the cultivation cycle will gradually increase while the price of agricultural water will also increase.

Land use trade-offs in China's protected areas from the perspective of accounting values of ecosystem services

"Accounting values" (quantity * unit value), assessed with an assumption of a constant unit value, are often used in creating macroeconomic aggregates like Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This approach has also been used to estimate the total value of ecosystem services (ES) - the benefits humans receive from functioning ecosystems. In China, this has been referred to as Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP). While the concepts of value and ES may be understood from multiple perspectives, ESs' accounting values contribute important information to the discussion of land use trade-offs in China's protected areas (PAs). These trade-offs include (1) whether additional conserved lands should be opened to tourism development, since tourism brings both positive and negative impacts; (2) whether PAs should be reduced, maintained, or expanded, since PAs safeguard sustainable wellbeing but also require maintenance; and (3) how to undertake conservation on lands traditionally used for human livelihood development, since conservation and livelihood may conflict. Previous studies have suggested (1) joint evaluation based on both GDP and ESs' values may lead to more sustainable decision-making than solely GDP-oriented evaluation; (2) the benefits of maintaining terrestrial PAs in China is $2.64 trillion/yr, over 14 times greater than the costs; (3) integrating ES valuation into environmental impact assessment helps link environmental impacts with human wellbeing and financial costs (e.g., land encroachment of a tourism highway in the Wulingyaun Scenic Area was estimated to cause permanent loss of ES values at $0.5 million/yr); and (4) integrating non-marketable cultural ESs into payment for ESs schemes can further balance conservation with livelihood development. Future research should consider (1) option and non-use values to present a more comprehensive picture of PAs' contributions to sustainable wellbeing and human interdependence with the rest of nature (2) both PAs' quantity (e.g., optimal coverage of PAs); and quality (e.g., management effectiveness, connectivity); (3) more sophisticated and feasible valuation methods (e.g., more cost-effective and engaged deliberation) to improve the credibility of aggregate values over large spatial scales; and (4) interaction between environmental components and ESs.

Producing valuable information from hydrologic models of nature-based solutions for water

Nature-based solutions (NBS) are an increasingly popular approach to water resources management, with a growing number of projects designed to take advantage of landscape effects on water flow. As NBS for water are developed, producing hydrologic information to inform decisions often requires substantial investment in data acquisition and modeling; for this effort to be worthwhile, the information generated must be useful and used. We apply an evaluation framework of salience (type of information), credibility (quality of information), and legitimacy (trustworthiness of information) to assess how hydrologic modeling outputs have been used in NBS projects by three types of decision makers: advocates, implementers, and analysts. Our findings, based on documents and interviews with watershed management programs in South America currently implementing NBS, consider how hydrologic modeling supports two types of decisions for NBS projects: quantifying the hydrologic impact of potential and existing NBS and prioritizing where NBS might be sited within a watershed. To help inform future modeling studies, we identify several problematic assumptions that analysts may make about the credibility of modeled outputs for NBS when advocates and implementers are not effectively engaged. We find that salient, credible, and legitimate results in applications evaluating NBS for water are not always generated in the absence of clear communication and engagement. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2022;18:135-147. © 2021 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Adaptive co-management of environmental risks in result-based agreements for the provision of environmental services: A case study of the South of the Divide Conservation Action Program

Environmental risks pose a threat to the achievement of ecosystem outcomes in Results- or Outcome-based Agreements for endangered species conservation on agricultural lands. As a result, environmental risks can deter prospective land managers from participating in Results-based Agreements if not addressed. This qualitative case study examines a Results-based Agreement program implemented by the South of the Divide Conservation Action Program (SODCAP Inc.) in Southwestern Saskatchewan. We contribute to understanding the nature of environmental risks in Results-based Agreements and how SODCAP Inc., an emergent leader in grassroots-focused conservation governance in Southwestern Saskatchewan, works with land managers to address environmental risks. Using drought as an example of environmental risks, the study finds that drought is a common occurrence in the study area; therefore, land managers consider it a critical determinant when deciding to participate in Results-based Agreements. The study also reveals that environmental risks affect land managers involved with Results-based Agreements both by limiting their ability to achieve ecosystem targets and by forcing them to incur extra costs (i.e., extra management and opportunity costs) in their attempt to meet ecosystem targets under drought conditions. Finally, the case study illustrates a participatory and result-enhancing approach adopted by SODCAP Inc., which draws several parallels with adaptive co-management, to manage environmental risks. Our study findings contribute to a relatively limited body of scholarship in environmental risk management in Results-based Agreements. In addition to the study's policy relevance, it also calls for studies into conservation programs that are result-enhancing.

Production of clean water in agriculture headwater catchments: A model based on the payment for environmental services

This study aimed to present a payment for ecosystem services model that promotes a symbiotic coexistence between agriculture and clean water production. The model favors application to headwater catchments where clean water production is expected. However, the frequent invasion of these areas with intensive agriculture and livestock production systems affects water quality threatening the use of this resource, namely as drinking water. The proposed Agriculture for Clean Water Yield (ACWY) model reconciles agriculture with clean water production through the incentive approach, giving the farmers a financial compensation if they are willing to replace intensive by sustainable agriculture and livestock production systems, namely agro-forestry systems. The reconciliation through the incentive approach is justified because clean water and food are both vital goods for human survival. The compensation rises as function of increasing catchment water yield capacity and conversion costs. For example, landowners receive more if land conversion occurs in slopping than undulated landscapes. The model applied to Fazenda Glória watershed, composed of 19 headwater catchments (96.7 ha on average), proposed financial incentives in the range 218.73-576.5 US$/ha/year depending on the catchment's water yield capacity, which rise to 284.35-749.45 US$/ha/year if conversions occur in extreme vulnerable areas. The watershed, located in São Paulo state, Brazil, covers 18.4 km² and is the source of drinking water to 70,000 people living in Jaboticabal city. Monitoring is essential to assess the performance of ACWY and adjust the compensation dynamically. For instance, noteworthy improvements in water yields and water quality or land conversions performed in short periods can expect the most generous compensation. Two concerns about implementing the model in Fazenda Glória rely on the lack of political will in spite of existing federal and state legal support, as well as on the financial sources to make the model a real project.

Spatial variation and influencing factors of the effectiveness of afforestation in China's Loess Plateau

Payment for ecosystem services (PES) has become a widely accepted strategy for combining environmental conservation or restoration with socioeconomic development. Understanding the spatial heterogeneity of the effects of PES programs and their influencing factors is necessary for the design and implementation of effective programs. However, few researchers have both distinguished the effects of PES and analyzed their spatial variation simultaneously. Here, we analyzed the spatial differences in the effectiveness of afforestation under China's Grain-to-Green Program (GTGP), a well-known PES program, in the Loess Plateau. The approach is based on remote sensing data and county-level statistical data, which reflects the basic implementation unit of the GTGP. We identified several local and non-local influencing factors: the aridity index, rural non-farm employment, and rural migration improved afforestation effectiveness, whereas the total afforestation degree (the cumulative area of afforestation divided by the total area), vegetation conditions before afforestation, grain production, and investment in fixed assets decreased its effectiveness. Based on our results, we propose several suggestions for improvement: preferring afforestation in humid counties with low vegetation cover, identifying an optimal degree of afforestation, and promoting the transformation of rural livelihoods. Our study provides a general approach to analyze the effectiveness of PES and its spatial variation, thereby providing insights into future PES programs both within China and around the world.

Payments for nutrient uptake in the blue bioeconomy - When to be careful and when to go for it

Harvesting of marine biomass for various applications may generate ecosystem services that currently lack a market price. One of these is nutrient uptake, which could counteract eutrophication. Market-based instruments (MBIs) such as cap & trade, compensatory mitigation, and payment for ecosystem services could help internalize such positive externalities. However, activities of the blue bioeconomy are diverse. We show that identifiable market characteristics can provide guidance concerning when to use these instruments and not. We find that the activities most suitable for MBIs are those that have positive environmental impacts but that are not (yet) financially viable. For activities that are already profitable on the biomass market, ensuring 'additionality' may be a significant problem for MBIs, especially for cap & trade systems or compensatory mitigation. We provide an overview of how some current biomass options fit into this framework and give suggestions on which biomass types to target.

A multicriteria evaluation approach to set forest restoration priorities based on water ecosystem services

Forest plays an important role in keeping water ecosystem services, such as drinking water provision. Thus, payment for ecosystem services is an essential instrument to promote forest restoration in agricultural watersheds. However, funds are limited and must be well planned to ensure water resources conservation and water ecosystem services improvement. In this context, our study aimed to identify priority areas for forest restoration, based on water ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes. For this, we have developed a decision-making support model for agricultural watersheds (in the Atlantic Forest region), based on mixed approaches, that were multicriteria evaluation (MCE) and Participatory Technique. The model will help decision-makers and stakeholders to set priorities for payment for ecosystem services programs implementation. So, we evaluate its application in watersheds with different forest cover patterns to check if it can be applied to different landscape patterns. The base of the model was the following criteria, that were produced with high-resolution data and ranking in the Participatory Technique context, considering their importance for the study: proximity to spring, slope, soil erodibility, topographic index, and land-use/land-cover (LULC). The criteria were aggregated by the Weighted Linear Combination (WLC) method (an MCE method). The priorities maps showed areas classified as high priority near the rivers (at most 200 m far from rivers), on the greatest slopes (>40%), on soils associated with high potential of erosion, and predominantly in agriculture lands. However, this class presented more percentage of the area associated with native forest in the forested watershed (native forest covers 55% of its area) than in the watershed non-forested (native forest covers 25%). Another important point of the final maps was a high percentage of areas associated with the medium class, which is a characteristic of the WLC method. Thus, areas classified as high and medium priority was defined as targets for forest restoration in the watersheds. We can conclude that for small watersheds, the MCE method, with high-resolution data, supports an appropriate prioritization of areas for forest restoration, aiming at the improvement of water ecosystem services. This way, our model can be applied to various payments for ecosystem services schemes in agricultural landscapes worldwide.

Objective indicators contribute more than subjective beliefs to resident willingness to pay for ecosystem services on the Tibetan Plateau

Effective ecosystem management on the Tibetan Plateau will contribute to regional environmental sustainability, and these efforts need broad public support, especially that of residents, over the long run. Although residents' subjective perceptions often directly influence practices, the interactive effects of subjective and objective indicators at the individual level often interfere with resident participation in ecosystem management. With the objective of decoupling the effects of multiple variables on resident participation in environmental sustainability, we launched a questionnaire survey on the topic of willingness to pay (WTP) on the Tibetan Plateau, and explored the effects of single variables and pairwise variables on WTP via dummy regression and proposed specific management suggestions. The results showed that objective indicators were the key drivers of WTP. First, it not only had strong direct effects on WTP (2770.32 CNY/year) but also interacted with subjective beliefs (3805.92 CNY/year); second, it had indirect effects on participation attitudes (R = 0.79) through subjective beliefs (R = 0.38). Put differently, the challenge of achieving sustainable management in the TP is how to enhance and satisfy the sociodemographic and socio-economic attributes of indigenous residents.

Common asset trusts to effectively steward natural capital and ecosystem services at multiple scales

Ecosystems (natural capital) produce a range of benefits to humans. Natural capital is best thought of as common property since many of the ecosystem services it helps produce are non-rival and/or non-excludable. Private property regimes and markets alone are ineffective and inappropriate institutions to manage them sustainably. These systems can be better managed as commons, using more nuanced private and community property rights and Common Asset Trusts (CATs), with legal precedent in the Public Trust Doctrine. Effective CATs embody a generalized version of Elinore Ostrom's eight core design principles for sustainable commons management: (1) shared identity and purpose; (2) equitable distribution of contributions and benefits; (3) fair and inclusive decision-making; (4) monitoring agreed behaviours; (5) graduated responses; (6) fast and fair conflict resolution; (7) authority to self-govern; and (8) collaborative relations with other groups and spatial scales. Here, we describe a few existing and proposed systems that approximate effective CATs. We also suggest how Costa Rica can transform its existing payment for ecosystem services (PES) scheme into a national CAT. Finally, we describe how CATs can facilitate more fair and effective public/private partnerships (PPPs) to invest in natural capital and ecosystem services.

A systematic approach of determining compensation and allocation for river basin water environment based on total pollutants control

The compensation of upstream protective area should be determined carefully. This paper provides a comprehensive evaluation framework for economic assessments on the treatment of wastewater discharged into a river basin. We explore the rational costs of compensation and the funding allocation in the Xin'an River basin based on rate agreements. The compensation is determined in accordance with the total compensation model based on the opportunity cost method and allocated by the method of information entropy. In this study, we identify the total compensation payment and distribution of funds in each district and county in the upstream area (Huangshan). Results show that the She county can receive the highest compensation, and the Tunxi district deserves the lowest compensation. In addition, this paper demonstrates that the existing compensation is insufficient for the reduction of water pollutants in the upstream area. Our findings contribute to the existing schemes of ecosystem services payment and improve the environmental decision-making.

Valorization of farm pond biomass as fertilizer for reducing basin-scale phosphorus losses

Long-term fertilizer phosphorus (P) inputs are causing phosphorous saturation of agricultural soils globally. The saturation is spreading to the edge-of-the-farm stormwater detention systems (SDSs) from where the legacy P is potentially being released to downstream surface waters. We use site-specific and literature data for P-saturated SDSs, to develop and evaluate the biogeochemical and economic feasibility of a P recycling program that targets both low (LIC, sugarcane) and high intensity cropping (HIC, fresh-produce) systems within a watershed. The focus is to close the P cycle loop to rejuvenate P sink function of SDSs. It involves harvesting and composting the SDS's biomass and it's on-farm use as an organic fertilizer for crops. Results showed that harvesting-composting can conservatively increase the P retention from 50% to 77% for HIC and almost complete treatment for LIC. Beyond potentially increasing yield and improving soil health, compost use can further increase in-field retention of P (and water). Additional costs incurred in harvesting and composting can be offset by the economic value of compost and the reduction in State's expenditure on regional P treatment systems. Treatment costs were $26/kg of P for HIC and $42/kg for LIC, 10 times less than the current state expenditure of $355-$909/kg P using constructed wetlands. We propose an incentivized, payment for services (PS) program, where producers are paid for P recycling. The PS program considers the intensity of cropping systems and their location along the drainage network from headwaters to the outlet, to achieve basin-scale P load reduction. The LIC SDSs recover regional P by passing the public water through them while recycling is implemented at the HIC. The estimated basin-scale P retention with harvest-compost approach was 854 metric tons, 5 times the P that entered the Everglades Protection Area in 2018, at 88%-93% less cost than the State treatment systems.

Water provisioning improvement through payment for ecosystem services

We assess whether a Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) programme met its objectives of reducing soil erosion and yielding water in an environmental protected area, the Guariroba River Basin, Midwestern Brazil. We measured rainfall and water discharge throughout 2012 and 2016. During the same period, soil and water conservation practices were performed in the basin, such as: building level terraces and riparian vegetation recovery. We separated streamflow into baseflow and direct runoff, then we evaluted the baseflow index that indicated that groundwater significantly contributes to total flow. Therefore, to investigate the effects on streamflow, we performed a trend analysis in the baseflow time series using the Mann-Kendall test. In addition, we analysed the efficiency of soil erosion regulation practices over time, considering the total payment and the trends found in the baseflow. Whereas precipitation records present a decreasing trend (1 mm month^-1), baseflow tends to increase by 0.018 m³ s^-1 in the same period. Our findings show that soil conservation practices performed in the basin increase baseflow and also provide a better resilience to endure extreme events such as drought based on an increase in forest areas and soil conservation practices such as level terrace.

Impacts of China's Grain for Green Program on Migration and Household Income

In the late 1990s, China's Yangtze and Yellow River Basins suffered devastating natural disasters widely attributed to the degradation of soil and water resources. The Government of China responded with a number of major environmental programs, the most expensive and influential of which, the Grain for Green (GfG) Program, was implemented widely from 1999. Under the GfG Program-also known as the Sloping Land Conversion or Conversion of Cropland to Forest Program-the central government compensates farmers to convert cropland on steep slopes or otherwise ecologically sensitive areas to forest or grassland. Its long-term success depends on households' ability to make sustainable changes to their household income streams and income diversification strategies. In this paper, we use a difference-in-difference estimation approach to examine the role of migration as a household-level response to the GfG Program, testing the extent to which individuals migrate following a reduction in land available for farming. Importantly, we exploit 15 years of data on migration decisions and establish that participating and non-participating households were on parallel migration paths before the program, thus refuting a key threat to causality in a difference-in-difference model. We find that participating families do, in fact, choose migration as an income diversification strategy more frequently than non-participants. The program effects varied over time but peaked post-Great Recession in 2011 when migration rates in GfG households exceeded those of non-GfG households by 5.9% points (p = 0.003) or about 26%. Our findings should encourage policymakers that families are making long-term adjustments to their livelihood strategies to avoid poverty in anticipation of the eventual withdrawal of government supports.

Value orientation and payment for ecosystem services: Perceived detrimental consequences lead to willingness-to-pay for ecosystem services

This research analyzed whether the three distinct value orientations posited under the Value-Belief-Norm (VBN) model determine willingness-to-pay (WTP) for a payment for ecosystem services (PES) program. A survey instrument gathered U.S. residents' knowledge and attitudes toward ecosystem services and PES, and elicited WTP for the restoration of a hypothetical degraded forest watershed for improved ecosystem services. Data from over 1000 respondents nationwide were analyzed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and ordered logistic regression. Urban respondents were more familiar with the concepts of ecosystem service and PES than rural respondents but familiarity did not yield statistically different WTP estimates. Based on results from the EFA, we posit that latent value orientations might be distinguished as 'detrimental', 'biospheric' and 'beneficial (egoistic)' - as compared to 'altruistic', 'biospheric' and 'egoistic' as suggested in the VBN's general awareness of consequences scale. Awareness of biospheric and detrimental consequences along with ascriptions to personal norms had positive and significant effects on stated WTP. Beneficial (egoistic) value orientation was negatively associated with WTP and carried a negative average WTP per household per year (US$ -30.48) for the proposed PES restoration program as compared with biospheric (US$ 15.53) and detrimental (US$ 3.96) orientations. Besides personal norms, awareness of detrimental consequences to human wellbeing from environmental degradation seems the stronger driver of WTP for the restoration and protection of forest watershed ecosystem services under a PES program.

The Willingness of Non-Industrial Private Forest Owners to Enter California's Carbon Offset Market

While non-industrial private forest landowners have a significant amount of forest landholdings in the US, they are underrepresented in the California cap-and-trade market forest offset program. Additional participation could benefit both the market and non-industrial private forest landowners. We developed a mail questionnaire which served as both a survey instrument and outreach tool about the market. Questions covered forest ownership objectives, landowners' future plans for forests, views of climate change, and attitudes and intentions regarding forest carbon offset project development. We sampled from five Northern California counties for a total of 143 usable surveys. Three different groups of landowners were identified based on their management objectives: amenity (including protecting nature and recreation); legacy (passing land to children and/or maintaining a farm or ranch); and income. Landowner objective groups differed on several key variables, particularly related to potential motivations for joining the market, while all landowners expressed concerns about protocol requirements. Regardless of ownership objectives, over half expressed that receiving revenue from their forests would be an important motivator to join, though most were unwilling to satisfy protocol requirements, even after learning of the potential benefits of program participation. Thus, participation appears to be limited by the costly and complex project development process, as well as a lack of landowner awareness. Extending these lessons, we assert that different landowners may approach payment for ecosystem services programs with different needs, awareness, and motivations, which provide important lessons for those who conduct landowner outreach and for PES program designers.

Payment for multiple forest benefits alters the effect of tree disease on optimal forest rotation length

Forests deliver multiple benefits both to their owners and to wider society. However, a wave of forest pests and pathogens is threatening this worldwide. In this paper we examine the effect of disease on the optimal rotation length of a single-aged, single rotation forest when a payment for non-timber benefits, which is offered to private forest owners to partly internalise the social values of forest management, is included. Using a generalisable bioeconomic framework we show how this payment counteracts the negative economic effect of disease by increasing the optimal rotation length, and under some restrictive conditions, even makes it optimal to never harvest the forest. The analysis shows a range of complex interactions between factors including the rate of spread of infection and the impact of disease on the value of harvested timber and non-timber benefits. A key result is that the effect of disease on the optimal rotation length is dependent on whether the disease affects the timber benefit only compared to when it affects both timber and non-timber benefits. Our framework can be extended to incorporate multiple ecosystem services delivered by forests and details of how disease can affect their production, thus facilitating a wide range of applications.

Assessing the effects of regional payment for watershed services program on water quality using an intervention analysis model

Much attention has been recently paid to ex-post assessments of socioeconomic and environmental benefits of payment for ecosystem services (PES) programs on poverty reduction, water quality, and forest protection. To evaluate the effects of a regional PES program on water quality, we selected chemical oxygen demand (COD) and ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) as indicators of water quality. Statistical methods and an intervention analysis model were employed to assess whether the PES program produced substantial changes in water quality at 10 water-quality sampling stations in the Shaying River watershed, China during 2006-2011. Statistical results from paired-sample t-tests and box plots of COD and NH3-N concentrations at the 10 stations showed that the PES program has played a positive role in improving water quality and reducing trans-boundary water pollution in the Shaying River watershed. Using the intervention analysis model, we quantitatively evaluated the effects of the intervention policy, i.e., the watershed PES program, on water quality at the 10 stations. The results suggest that this method could be used to assess the environmental benefits of watershed or water-related PES programs, such as improvements in water quality, seasonal flow regulation, erosion and sedimentation, and aquatic habitat.

Value of ecosystem hydropower service and its impact on the payment for ecosystem services

Hydropower is an important service provided by ecosystems. We surveyed all the hydropower plants in the Zagunao River Basin, Southwest China. Then, we assessed the hydropower service by using the InVEST (The Integrated Value and Tradeoff of Ecosystem Service Tools) model. Finally, we discussed the impact on ecological compensation. The results showed that: 1) hydropower service value of ecosystems in the Zagunao River Basin is 216.29 Euro/hm(2) on the average, of which the high-value area with more than 475.65 Euro/hm(2) is about 750.37 km(2), accounting for 16.12% of the whole watershed, but it provides 53.47% of the whole watershed service value; 2) ecosystem is an ecological reservoir with a great regulation capacity. Dams cannot completely replace the reservoir water conservation function of ecosystems, and has high economic and environmental costs that must be paid as well. Compensation for water conservation services should become an important basis for ecological compensation of hydropower development. 3) In the current PES cases, the standard of compensation is generally low. Cascade development makes the value of upstream ecosystem services become more prominent, reflecting the differential rent value, and the value of ecosystem services should be based on the distribution of differentiated ecological compensation.