Seed enhancement technologies for sustainable dryland restoration: Coating and scarification

High temperatures, soil salinity, a lack of available water, loose soils with reduced water holding, and low soil fertility are obstacles to restoration efforts in degraded drylands and desert ecosystems. Improved soil physical and chemical properties, seed germination and seedling recruitment, and plant growth are all proposed as outcomes of seed enhancement technologies (SETs). Seed priming, seed coating, and seed scarification are three SETs' methods for promoting seed germination and subsequent plant development under unfavorable environmental conditions. Various subtypes can be further classified within these three broad groups. The goals of this review are to (1) develop a general classification of coating and scarification SETs, (2) facilitate the decision-making process to adopt suitable SETs for arid lands environments, and (3) highlight the benefits of coating and scarification SETs in overcoming biotic and abiotic challenges in ecological restoring degraded dryland. For rehabilitating degraded lands and restoring drylands, it is recommended to 1) optimize SETs that have been used effectively for a long time, particularly those associated with seed physiological enhancement and seed microenvironment, 2) integrate coating and scarification to overcome different biotic and abiotic constraints, and 3) apply SET(s) to a mixture of seeds from various species and sizes. However, more research should be conducted on developing SETs for large-scale use to provide the required seed tonnages for dryland restoration.

Recovering and potentially applying of alginate like extracellular polymers from anaerobic digested sludge

Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) are biopolymers contained in both aerobic and anaerobic sludge. In EPS, alginate like extracellular polymers (ALE) is thought as a highly valued material, which have been widely studied with aerobic sludge. Nevertheless, a curiosity on ALE remains in anaerobic digested sludge (ADS). With 5 different sludge sources, anaerobic digestion of excess sludge was conducted in a batch mode, and then ADS was used to extract ALE and to analyze its physicochemical properties for potential applications. The yield of ALE extracted from ADS (ALE-ADS) ranged from 119.4 to 179.4 mg/g VSS. The compositional characteristics of ALE-ADS observed by FT-IR, 3D-EEM and UV-Vis spectroscopy revealed that there were minor differences in the composition and property of ALE-ADS but a similarity of 62 %-70 % to a commercial alginate remained in terms of chemical functional groups. Moreover, ALE-ADS composed of 1,4-linked β-d-mannuronic acid (M) and 1,4 α-l-guluronic acid (G) residues that form blocks of GG (20.8 %-33.8 %), MG (12.8 %-30.1 %) and MM (6.6 %-15.1 %), respectively. Based on the gel-forming capacity, film-forming property, adsorbility, and amphiphilicity, ALE-ADS seems potential as a water-proof coating with even a better performance than the commercial alginate, as a seed coating with an increased germination rate, and as a bio-adsorbent with a similar performance to the commercial alginate and ALE from aerobic sludge.

New seed coating containing Trichoderma viride with anti-pathogenic properties

Background

To ensure food security in the face of climate change and the growing world population, multi-pronged measures should be taken. One promising approach uses plant growth-promoting fungi (PGPF), such as Trichoderma, to reduce the usage of agrochemicals and increase plant yield, stress tolerance, and nutritional value. However, large-scale applications of PGPF have been hampered by several constraints, and, consequently, usage on a large scale is still limited. Seed coating, a process that consists of covering seeds with low quantities of exogenous materials, is gaining attention as an efficient and feasible delivery system for PGPF.

Methods

We have designed a new seed coating composed of chitin, methylcellulose, and Trichoderma viride spores and assessed its effect on canola (Brassica napus L.) growth and development. For this purpose, we analyzed the antifungal activity of T. viride against common canola pathogenic fungi (Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium culmorum, and Colletotrichum sp.). Moreover, the effect of seed coating on germination ratio and seedling growth was evaluated. To verify the effect of seed coating on plant metabolism, we determined superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and expression of the stress-related RSH (RelA/SpoT homologs).

Results

Our results showed that the T. viride strains used for seed coating significantly restricted the growth of all three pathogens, especially F. culmorum, for which the growth was inhibited by over 40%. Additionally, the new seed coating did not negatively affect the ability of the seeds to complete germination, increased seedling growth, and did not induce the plant stress response. To summarize, we have successfully developed a cost-effective and environmentally responsible seed coating, which will also be easy to exploit on an industrial scale.

Low-cost drum granulator for mechanized seedball production

Seed granulation is a coating technique, which turns a raw material mixture of sand, loam, water, seeds, and fertilizers into seedballs. It enhances the seedling establishment and early growth of crops, like pearl millet, in nutrient-poor soil. Mechanization is highly required, as large-scale production poses challenges to local farmers due to time constraints and labor demand. The prototype of a drum granulator for seeds, also known as a seedball machine, essentially consists of a metal frame and a drum. The seedballs are formed by a rotational motion of the drum. The construction and operation of the machine were designed to be simple. In this study, the combined effect of different factors, such as substrate composition, rotational speed and residence time was taken into account. This study revealed that the amount of loam and the rotational speed of the drum appeared to be the most influencing factors on seedball production and quality. The machine had a production capacity of seedballs ten times higher than manual production. The machine-made seedballs were also of high quality, exceeding 98% germination rate under greenhouse conditions. Besides pearl millet, the machine can be potentially used for other small-sized seeds, such as cotton or sesame.

Thiamethoxam in soybean seed treatment: Plant bioactivation and hormesis, besides whitefly control?

Amid concerns on the myriad of existing chemical stressors in agroecosystems, pesticides and particularly neonicotinoid insecticides are in the forefront. Despite that, these neurotoxic compounds remain the dominant group of insecticides in worldwide use with the added versatility of use in seed coatings. Such use sparks environmental concerns counterbalanced by their reported insecticidal efficacy and potential plant bioactivation. Nonetheless, this alleged double benefit and interconnection expected with neonicotinoids has been little explored particularly when the whole plant phenology is considered. Regardless of the expected efficacy against targeted insect pest species, like whiteflies, neonicotinoids may spark dual effect on plants - negative at higher concentrations, positive at low concentrations, which is consistent with the hormesis phenomenon that may be expressed as a plant bioactivation. This effect may also cascade to the targeted insect species, what deserves attention. Therefore, soybean seeds treated with increasing concentrations of the neonicotinoid thiamethoxam were followed throughout their development in greenhouse, recording the plant response and yield, besides their effect in whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci MEAM1). Thiamethoxam application was correlated to leaf contents of thiamethoxam and its metabolite clothianidin. Plant hormesis was found for leaf area and root growth, but not for other plant morphological or physiological parameters, nor plant yield. The insecticide concentration-dependency compromised whitefly population growth without evidence of cascading any plant-mediated hormesis to the insects. Thus, although plant hormesis was recognized with thiamethoxam in treated soybean seeds in relevant parameters, no evidence of plant bioactivation was observed to justify its use with such a secondary objective, nor did this hormesis impair whitefly control.

Microbial seed coating: An attractive tool for sustainable agriculture

Seed coating is considered one of the best methods to promote sustainable agriculture where the physical and physiological properties of seeds can be improved to facilitate planting, increase growth indices and alleviate abiotic and biotic stresses. Several methods of seed coating are used to attain good application uniformity and adherence in the seed coating process. Seed coating has been tested in seeds of various plant species with different dimensions, forms, textures, and germination types. Plant beneficial microorganisms (PBM), such as rhizobia, bacteria, and fungi inoculated via seed inoculation can increase seed germination, plant performance and tolerance across biotic (e.g., pathogens and pests) and abiotic stress (e.g., salt, drought, and heavy metals) while reducing the use of agrochemical inputs. In this review, the microbial seed coating process and their ability to increase seed performance and protect plants from biotic and abiotic stresses are well discussed and highlighted in sustainable agricultural systems.

Neonicotinoids from coated seeds toxic for honeydew-feeding biological control agents

Seed coating ('seed treatment') is the leading delivery method of neonicotinoid insecticides in major crops such as soybean, wheat, cotton and maize. However, this prophylactic use of neonicotinoids is widely discussed from the standpoint of environmental costs. Growing soybean plants from neonicotinoid-coated seeds in field, we demonstrate that soybean aphids (Aphis glycines) survived the treatment, and excreted honeydew containing neonicotinoids. Biochemical analyses demonstrated that honeydew excreted by the soybean aphid contained substantial concentrations of neonicotinoids even one month after sowing of the crop. Consuming this honeydew reduced the longevity of two biological control agents of the soybean aphid, the predatory midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza and the parasitic wasp Aphelinus certus. These results have important environmental and economic implications because honeydew is the main carbohydrate source for many beneficial insects in agricultural landscapes.

Recent advances in biodegradable matrices for active ingredient release in crop protection: Towards attaining sustainability in agriculture

Climate changes, emerging species of plant pests, and deficits of clean water and arable land have made availability of food to the ever-increasing global population a challenge. Excessive use of synthetic pesticides to meet ever-increasing production needs has resulted in development of resistance in pest populations, as well as significant ecotoxicity, which has directly and indirectly impacted all life-forms on earth. To meet the goal of providing safe, sufficient, and high-quality food globally with minimal environmental impact, one strategy is to focus on targeted delivery of pesticides using eco-friendly and biodegradable carriers that are derived from naturally available materials. Herein, we discuss some of the recent approaches to use biodegradable matrices in crop protection, while exploring their design and efficiency. We summarize by discussing associated challenges with the existing approaches and future trends that can lead the world to more sustainable agricultural practices.

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Providing food safety and security is critical for the growing global population.

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Crop yield is affected by various biotic and abiotic factors.

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Targeted/sustained delivery of agrochemicals reduces excessive use of pesticides.

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Nature-derived biodegradable materials curtail plant health and environmental harm.

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Biodegradable matrices hold promise for sustainable crop protection.

A novel chitosan biopolymer based Trichoderma delivery system: Storage stability, persistence and bio efficacy against seed and soil borne diseases of oilseed crops

Management of seed and soil borne fungal plant pathogens using fungal species belonging to the genus Trichoderma is gaining importance. Seed coating with powder based formulations of Trichoderma is most widely adopted by the researchers and farmers as well. Delivery system that leads to good adherence of fungal propagules on seed surface, minimizing the wastage of active ingredient, sustained and timely release during treatment process is very important for effective season long protection. Chitosan-PEG (Polyethylene glycol) (Cts-PEG) blend containing Trichoderma harzianum (Th4d) (Cts-PEG-Th) spores is developed and its storage stability, persistence in soil and bio efficacy against seed and soil borne pathogens of groundnut and safflower crops is studied. The blend was stable without much changes in pH throughout the storage period. Persistence studies conducted for 3 months revealed that Cts-PEG-Th amended soil, Trichoderma got released from polymer film slowly and reached a maximum of log 8 CFUs by 30 days and there after started declining to retain log 6 CFUs at 90 days. In shelf life study, the chitosan blend was able to maintain Trichoderma counts of log 10.0 and log 10.2 over a period of 6 months at storage temperatures of 30 °C and 4 °C, respectively and the antagonistic activity unaffected against three plant pathogens viz. Macrophomina phaseolina, Fusarium oxysporumf. sp.ricini and Aspergillus niger over a period of 6 months of storage. Bio efficacy testing in germination towels and green house pot studies revealed the effectiveness of seed treatment with Cts-PEG-Th blend significantly increasing the germination and seedling vigour and reducing the diseases in groundnut (peanut) and safflower.

Hormonal and enzymatic responses of maize seedlings to chilling stress as affected by triazoles seed treatments

Triazole fungicides have been used for seed treatment to control soilborne diseases of maize, but seedlings coming from triazole-coated seed show serious phytotoxicity under chilling stress. To understand this phytotoxic impact, maize seed was treated with four triazoles fungicides and the corresponding seedlings were analysed on growth and gene expression. We found that maize seed coated with difenoconazole and tebuconazole exhibited either no or increased effects on germination and growth of maize at 25 °C, regardless of chemical concentrations. When maize seedlings were subjected to chilling treatment, however, their growth was significantly inhibited, and the inhibition was positively correlated with the rate of triazole application. Mesocotyl length decreased by 32.19-44.73% by difenoconazole, and 23.53-32.08% by tebuconazolet at rates of 1:50 and 1:25, respectively. However, myclobutanil did not have any effects at any temperatures. The contents of the gibberellin GA12 and abscisic acid in maize seedlings developed from difenoconazole- or tebuconazole-coated seed were significantly increased under chilling stress. The expression of two key catabolic enzyme genes, GA2ox3 and GA2ox4, was significantly up-regulated immediately following chilling stress and 2 days after recovery at 25 °C in the seedlings treated with difenoconazole or tebuconazole. This imbalance in phytohormones may explain why difenoconazole- or tebuconazole-coated seed more likely results in the phytotoxicity of maize seedlings under a low temperature condition during seed emergence and seedling growth. Since myclobutanil did not have this negative effect, it can be applied for seed coating in areas where temperatures are low during early seedling growth.

Seed coating with beneficial microorganisms for precision agriculture

Seed coating is a technique of covering seeds with adhesive agents to improve seed performance and plant establishment while reducing production cost. To meet the needs of development of precision agriculture, seed coating has been widely used in agriculture as an effective means to alleviate biotic and abiotic stresses, thus enhancing crop growth, yield, and health. Plant growth promoting microorganisms (PGPM) are recognized as essential contributors to improving agricultural productivity via direct application to the rhizosphere and plant tissues, or seed inoculation. However, during conventional inoculation processes, several factors such as insufficient microbial survival, hindrance in the application of biocontrol inocula to the seeds and exposure to unsuitable temperature and light in subsequent seed storage, force us to explore efficient and reliable microbial application tools. Recently, biological seed coating with PGPM is proposed as an alternative to conventional seed treatment (such as fertilizer and protection products) due to its ecological safety and socio-economic aspects. In this review, microbial seed coating technology and its contribution to sustainable precision agriculture are well discussed and highlighted in the extensive table and elaborate schematic drawings.

Potential applications of cyanobacteria: Spirulina platensis filtrates and homogenates in agriculture

In the present paper, products obtained from a blue-green microalga Spirulina platensis filtrate (applied for seed soaking and for foliar spray) and homogenate (used for seed coating) were tested in the cultivation of radish. Their effect on length, wet mass, multielemental composition and the greenness index of the radish leaves was examined. Multi-elemental analyses of the algal products, and radish were also performed using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The best soaking time, concentrations of filtrate and doses of homogenate were established. The longest and heaviest plants were observed for homogenate applied at a dose of 300 µL per 1.5 g of seeds and 15% of filtrate applied as foliar spray. The highest chlorophyll content was found in the group treated with 100 µL of homogenate and 5% of filtrate. In the case of soaking time, the longest plants were in the group where seeds were soaked for 6 h, but the heaviest and greenest were after soaking for 48 h. The applied algal products increased the content of elements in seedlings. Obtained results proved that algal extracts have high potential to be applied in modern horticulture and agriculture. The use of Spirulina-based products is consistent with the idea of sustainable agriculture that could help to ensure production of sufficient human food to meet the needs of rising population and protection of the environment.

Contamination of the guttation liquid of two common weeds with neonicotinoids from coated maize seeds planted in close proximity

Neonicotinoid uptake by maize plants emerged from coated seeds and by two common weeds grown in close proximity to coated seeds has been studied. Uptake of thiamethoxam (TMX) and clothianidin (CLO) have been characterized via guttation liquid measurements. The creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense), a well-known maize weed, as well as red poppy or Flanders poppy (Papaver rhoeas) were chosen as model species. The results confirmed that cross-contamination may occur by uptake of the neonicotinoid AIs through soil from neighbouring plants that emerged from coated seeds. Although the levels of these neonicotinoids were substantially lower in the guttation liquid of the weeds than in that of maize plants emerged from coated seeds, the compounds were detected up to 36th day after planting of the maize seeds. The highest peak concentrations of TMX were around 150 and 21 mg L^-1, while similar data for CLO were around 70 and 21 mg L^-1 for maize and creeping thistle, respectively. Mostly due to its higher guttation intensity significantly lower values were determined for red poppy (0.740 mg L^-1).

Development of biodegradable coatings for maize seeds and their application for Azospirillum brasilense immobilization

The objective of this study was to develop biodegradable coatings for agriculture crop seeds based on starch, gelatin, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Developed materials were characterized according to their microstructures, barrier properties, influence on germination of maize seeds, and ability to sustain Azospirillum brasilense Ab-V5 viability in coated maize seeds. The coatings were obtained employing different proportions of starch, gelatin, and PVA, ranging from 0 to 3.0 g/100 g of each material, respectively. Samples formulated with the pure polymers showed the highest values of water absorption capacity, solubility, and water vapor permeability, and the ternary mixtures showed the lowest values. Single polymer formulations and the binary starch-gelatin mixture (CS50GL50) favored maize seeds germination compared to the uncoated maize seeds. In addition, seed coating obtained from CS50GL50 formulation resulted in A. brasilense Ab-V5 viability in coated seeds up to 15 days after bacterial immobilization, being considered a promising low-cost, biodegradable, and renewable source material to be used in agriculture.

Fate and transport of furrow-applied granular tefluthrin and seed-coated clothianidin insecticides: Comparison of field-scale observations and model estimates

The transport of agricultural insecticides to water bodies may create risk of exposure to non-target organisms. Similarly, widespread use of furrow-applied and seed-coated insecticides may increase risk of exposure, yet accessible exposure models are not easily adapted for furrow application, and only a few examples of model validation of furrow-applied insecticides exist using actual field data. The goal of the current project was to apply an exposure model, the Pesticide in Water Calculator (PWC), to estimate the concentrations of two in-furrow insecticides applied to maize: the granular pyrethroid, tefluthrin, and the seed-coated neonicotinoid, clothianidin. The concentrations of tefluthrin and clothianidin in surface runoff water, sampled from a field in central Illinois (USA), were compared to the PWC modeled pesticide concentrations in surface runoff. The tefluthrin concentrations were used to optimize the application method in the PWC, and the addition of particulate matter and guttation droplets improved the models prediction of clothianidin concentrations. Next, the tefluthrin and clothianidin concentrations were calculated for a standard farm pond using both the optimized application method and the application methods provided in PWC. Estimated concentrations in a standard farm pond varied by a factor of 100 for tefluthrin and 50 for clothianidin depending on the application method used. The addition of guttation droplets and particulate matter to the model increased the annual clothianidin concentration in a standard farm pond by a factor of 1.5, which suggested that these transport routes should also be considered when assessing neonicotinoid exposure.