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Galiullina RA, Chichkova NV, Safronov GG, Vartapetian AB. Characterization of Phytaspase Proteolytic Activity Using Fluorogenic Peptide Substrates. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2731:49-58. [PMID: 38019425 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3511-7_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2023]
Abstract
Within the subtilase family of plant proteolytic enzymes, phytaspases are distinguished by their strict substrate cleavage specificity after an aspartate residue preceded by a characteristic tripeptide amino acid motif. This type of recognition resembles that of animal apoptotic proteases, caspases. Phytaspases attract attention not only because they are critically important for the accomplishment of stress-induced death of plant cells, but also due to their ability to specifically process precursor proteins, thus generating bioactive plant peptide hormones, systemin and phytosulfokine. As the activity of phytaspases appears to be essential for life and death decisions made by the plant cell, elaboration of an approach to characterize and quantitate phytaspase proteolytic activity is of importance. Here we provide a protocol for phytaspase activity determination and characterization using fluorogenic peptide substrates. This approach works well, both with purified phytaspase samples, and with crude extracts from plant tissues. We also discuss advantages of the assay, factors that may influence its sensitivity and specificity, as well as possible pitfalls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raisa A Galiullina
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Nina V Chichkova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Grigoriy G Safronov
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Andrey B Vartapetian
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.
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Hou Q, Wang L, Qi Y, Yan T, Zhang F, Zhao W, Wan X. A systematic analysis of the subtilase gene family and expression and subcellular localization investigation of anther-specific members in maize. Plant Physiol Biochem 2023; 203:108041. [PMID: 37722281 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2023.108041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 08/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
Subtilases (SBTs), also known as Subtilisin-like serine proteases, are extracellular alkaline protease proteins. SBTs function in all stages of plant growth, development and stress responses. Maize (Zea mays L.) is a crop widely used worldwide as food, feed, and industrial materials. However, information about the members and their functions of the SBT proteins in maize is lacking. In this study, we identified 58 ZmSBT genes from the maize genome and conducted a comprehensive investigation of ZmSBTs by phylogenetic, gene duplication event, gene structure, and protein conserved motif analyses. The ZmSBT proteins were phylogenetically classified into seven groups, and collinearity analysis indicated that many ZmSBTs originate from tandem or segmental duplications. Structural and homolog protein comparison revealed ZmSBTs have conserved protein structures with reported subtilase proteins, suggesting the conserved functions. Further analysis showed that ZmSBTs are expressed in different tissues, and many are responses to specific abiotic stress. Analysis of the anther-specific ZmSBT genes showed their expression peaked at different developmental stages of maize anthers. Subcellular localization analysis of selected maize ZmSBTs showed they are located in different cellular compartments. The information provided in this study is valuable for further functional study of ZmSBTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quancan Hou
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China; Beijing Engineering Laboratory of Main Crop Bio-Tech Breeding, Zhongzhi lnternational lnstitute of Agricultural Biosciences, Beijing, 100192, China
| | - Linlin Wang
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Yuchen Qi
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Tingwei Yan
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Fan Zhang
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Wei Zhao
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Xiangyuan Wan
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China; Beijing Engineering Laboratory of Main Crop Bio-Tech Breeding, Zhongzhi lnternational lnstitute of Agricultural Biosciences, Beijing, 100192, China.
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3
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Stintzi A, Stührwohldt N, Royek S, Schaller A. Identification of Cognate Protease/Substrate Pairs by Use of Class-Specific Inhibitors. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2447:67-81. [PMID: 35583773 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2079-3_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Many proteins are regulated post-translationally by proteolytic processing. This includes plant signaling peptides that are proteolytically released from larger precursor proteins. The proteases involved in the biogenesis of signaling peptides and in regulation of other proteins by limited proteolysis are largely unknown. Here we describe how protease inhibitors that are specific for a certain class of proteases can be employed for the identification of proteases that are responsible for the processing of a given target protein. After having identified the protease family to which the processing enzyme belongs, candidate proteases and the GFP-tagged target protein are agro-infiltrated for transient expression in N. benthamiana leaves. Cleavage products are analyzed on immuno-blots and specificity of cleavage is confirmed by co-expression of class-specific inhibitors. For the identification of processing sites within the target protein, cleavage product(s) are purified by immunoprecipitation followed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and analyzed by mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annick Stintzi
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Nils Stührwohldt
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Stefanie Royek
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Andreas Schaller
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
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Wang X, Pfannstiel J, Stintzi A, Schaller A. Peptide Backbone Modifications for the Assessment of Cleavage Site Relevance in Precursors of Signaling Peptides. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2447:83-93. [PMID: 35583774 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2079-3_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The physiological relevance of site-specific precursor processing for the biogenesis of peptide hormones and growth factors can be demonstrated in genetic complementation experiments, in which a gain of function is observed for the cleavable wild-type precursor, but not for a non-cleavable precursor mutant. Similarly, cleavable and non-cleavable synthetic peptides can be used in bioassays to test whether processing is required for bioactivity. In genetic complementation experiments, site-directed mutagenesis has to be used to mask a processing site against proteolysis. Peptide-based bioassays have the distinctive advantage that peptides can be protected against proteolytic cleavage by backbone modifications, i.e., without changing the amino acid sequence. Peptide backbone modifications have been employed to increase the metabolic stability of peptide drugs, and in basic research, to investigate whether processing at a certain site is required for precursor maturation and formation of the bioactive peptide. For this approach, it is important to show that modification of the peptide backbone has the desired effect and does indeed protect the respective peptide bond against proteolysis. This can be accomplished with the MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry-based assay we describe here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Wang
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Jens Pfannstiel
- Core Facility Hohenheim, Mass Spectrometry Unit, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Annick Stintzi
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Andreas Schaller
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany.
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Óskarsson KR, Kristjánsson MM. Improved expression, purification and characterization of VPR, a cold active subtilisin-like serine proteinase and the effects of calcium on expression and stability. Biochim Biophys Acta Proteins Proteom 2018; 1867:152-162. [PMID: 30502512 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2018.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Revised: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Cloning into a pET 11a vector, followed by high-level expression of the cold adapted subtilase, VPR, utilizing the rhamnose titratable T7 system of Lemo21, resulted in a dramatic increase of soluble protein compared to the older system used. Expression optimization clearly shows the importance of calcium in the medium after induction, both for stability of the proteinase and cell health. Characterization of the purified enzyme obtained in a redesigned purification protocol which removed apparent RNA contaminants, resulted in a significantly higher value for kcat than previously reported. The new recombinant protein exhibited slightly lower stability against thermal denaturation and thermal inactivation. Our results also indicate that two of the calcium binding sites have apparent binding constants in the mM range. Binding of calcium to the weaker of those two sites only affects resistance of the enzyme against irreversible thermal inactivation. Differential scanning calorimetry revealed a non-two-state denaturation process, with indication of presence of intermediates caused by unfolding of calcium binding motifs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristinn R Óskarsson
- Department of Biochemistry, Science Institute, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Magnús M Kristjánsson
- Department of Biochemistry, Science Institute, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland.
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Arnesen JA, Małagocka J, Gryganskyi A, Grigoriev IV, Voigt K, Stajich JE, De Fine Licht HH. Early Diverging Insect-Pathogenic Fungi of the Order Entomophthorales Possess Diverse and Unique Subtilisin-Like Serine Proteases. G3 (Bethesda) 2018; 8:3311-9. [PMID: 30111619 DOI: 10.1534/g3.118.200656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Insect-pathogenic fungi use subtilisin-like serine proteases (SLSPs) to degrade chitin-associated proteins in the insect procuticle. Most insect-pathogenic fungi in the order Hypocreales (Ascomycota) are generalist species with a broad host-range, and most species possess a high number of SLSPs. The other major clade of insect-pathogenic fungi is part of the subphylum Entomophthoromycotina (Zoopagomycota, formerly Zygomycota) which consists of high host-specificity insect-pathogenic fungi that naturally only infect a single or very few host species. The extent to which insect-pathogenic fungi in the order Entomophthorales rely on SLSPs is unknown. Here we take advantage of recently available transcriptomic and genomic datasets from four genera within Entomophthoromycotina: the saprobic or opportunistic pathogens Basidiobolus meristosporus, Conidiobolus coronatus, C. thromboides, C. incongruus, and the host-specific insect pathogens Entomophthora muscae and Pandora formicae, specific pathogens of house flies (Muscae domestica) and wood ants (Formica polyctena), respectively. In total 154 SLSP from six fungi in the subphylum Entomophthoromycotina were identified: E. muscae (n = 22), P. formicae (n = 6), B. meristosporus (n = 60), C. thromboides (n = 18), C. coronatus (n = 36), and C. incongruus (n = 12). A unique group of 11 SLSPs was discovered in the genomes of the obligate biotrophic fungi E. muscae, P. formicae and the saprobic human pathogen C. incongruus that loosely resembles bacillopeptidase F-like SLSPs. Phylogenetics and protein domain analysis show this class represents a unique group of SLSPs so far only observed among Bacteria, Oomycetes and early diverging fungi such as Cryptomycota, Microsporidia, and Entomophthoromycotina. This group of SLSPs is missing in the sister fungal lineages of Kickxellomycotina and the fungal phyla Mucoromyocta, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota fungi suggesting interesting gene loss patterns.
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Óskarsson KR, Nygaard M, Ellertsson BÖ, Thorbjarnardottir SH, Papaleo E, Kristjánsson MM. A single mutation Gln142Lys doubles the catalytic activity of VPR, a cold adapted subtilisin-like serine proteinase. Biochim Biophys Acta 2016; 1864:1436-43. [PMID: 27456266 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2016.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Structural comparisons of the cold adapted subtilase VPR and its thermophilic homologue, aqualysin I (AQUI) indicated the presence of additional salt bridges in the latter. Few of those appear to contribute significantly to thermal stability of AQUI. This includes a putative salt bridge between residues Lys142 and Glu172 as its deletion did not have any significant effect on its stability or activity (Jónsdóttir et al. (2014)). Insertion of this putative salt bridge into the structure of VPR, in a double mutant (VPRΔC_Q142K/S172E), however was detrimental to the stability of the enzyme. Incorporation of either the Q142K or S172E mutations into VPR, were found to significantly affect the catalytic properties of the enzyme. The single mutation Q142K was highly effective, as it increased the kcat and kcat/Km more than twofold. When the Q142K mutation was inserted into a thermostabilized, but a low activity mutant of VPR (VPRΔC_N3P/I5P), the activity increased about tenfold in terms of kcat and kcat/Km, while retaining the stability of the mutant. Molecular dynamics simulations of the single mutants were carried out to provide structural rationale for these experimental observations. Based on root mean square fluctuation (RMSF) profiles, the two mutants were more flexible in certain regions of the structure and the Q142K mutant had the highest overall flexibility of the three enzymes. The results suggest that weakening of specific H-bonds resulting from the mutations may be propagated over some distance giving rise to higher flexibility in the active site regions of the enzyme, causing higher catalytic activity in the mutants.
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Bleckmann A, Dresselhaus T. Fluorescent whole-mount RNA in situ hybridization (F-WISH) in plant germ cells and the fertilized ovule. Methods 2015; 98:66-73. [PMID: 26521978 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2015.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2015] [Revised: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
First evidence on gene function and regulation is provided by the cellular expression pattern in complex tissues. However, to understand the activity of a specific gene, it is essential to analyze the regulatory network, which controls the spatio-temporal translation pattern during the entire life span of the transcribed mRNA. To explore mechanisms which control mRNA abundance and localization in space and time, it is necessary to visualize mRNAs quantitatively with a subcellular resolution, without sectioning the tissues. We have adapted and optimized a protocol for colorimetric whole-mount RNA in situ hybridization (WISH) using egg cell-specific digoxigenin (DIG) labeled probes (Hejátko et al., 2006) [1] on ovules and early seeds of Arabidopsis. Furthermore, we established a fluorescent whole-mount RNA in situ hybridization (F-WISH) protocol, which allows mRNA visualization on a subcellular level. The polar localized mRNA of SBT4.13, encoding a subtilase, was identified using this protocol. Both methods are described and discussed in detail. Additionally a (F)-WISH flow-chart is provided along with a troubleshooting table.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Bleckmann
- Cell Biology and Plant Biochemistry, Biochemie-Zentrum Regensburg, University of Regensburg, Universitätsstrasse 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Thomas Dresselhaus
- Cell Biology and Plant Biochemistry, Biochemie-Zentrum Regensburg, University of Regensburg, Universitätsstrasse 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
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Sakaguchi M, Osaku K, Maejima S, Ohno N, Sugahara Y, Oyama F, Kawakita M. Highly conserved salt bridge stabilizes a proteinase K subfamily enzyme, Aqualysin I, from Thermus aquaticus YT-1. AMB Express 2014; 4:59. [PMID: 25136511 PMCID: PMC4131155 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-014-0059-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The proteinase K subfamily enzymes, thermophilic Aqualysin I (AQN) from Thermus aquaticus YT-1 and psychrophilic serine protease (VPR) from Vibrio sp. PA-44, have six and seven salt bridges, respectively. To understand the possible significance of salt bridges in the thermal stability of AQN, we prepared mutant proteins in which amino acid residues participating in salt bridges common to proteinase K subfamily members and intrinsic to AQN were replaced to disrupt the bridges one at a time. Disruption of a salt bridge common to proteinase K subfamily enzymes in the D183N mutant resulted in a significant reduction in thermal stability, and a massive change in the content of the secondary structure was observed, even at 70°C, in the circular dichroism (CD) analysis. These results indicate that the common salt bridge Asp183-Arg12 is important in maintaining the conformation of proteinase K subfamily enzymes and suggest the importance of proximity between the regions around Asp183 and the N-terminal region around Arg12. Of the three mutants that lack an AQN intrinsic salt bridge, D212N was more prone to unfolding at 80°C than the wild-type enzyme. Similarly, D17N and E237Q were less thermostable than the wild-type enzyme, although this may be partially due to increased autolysis. The AQN intrinsic salt bridges appear to confer additional thermal stability to this enzyme. These findings will further our understanding of the factors involved in stabilizing protein structure.
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Plattner S, Gruber C, Altmann F, Bohlmann H. Self-processing of a barley subtilase expressed in E. coli. Protein Expr Purif 2014; 101:76-83. [PMID: 24927642 PMCID: PMC4148201 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2014.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Revised: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The barley subtilase BAJ93208 has been expressed in the cytoplasm of E. coli C3030. Self processing occurred at the N and C-terminus. The Ser556Ala mutant was inactive and showed no self processing.
The barley protease BAJ93208 belongs to the subtilase family of serine proteases. We have expressed BAJ93208 in the cytoplasm of the Escherichiacoli strain SHuffle C3030 using a rhamnose-inducible promoter. The expression construct included a (His)6-tag at the N-terminus and a strep-tag at the C-terminus. Western blot analysis revealed that the protein was processed at the N- and C-terminus. To exclude that this processing was due to contaminating E. coli proteases, a mutated BAJ93208 protease was constructed. This inactive mutant was not processed, demonstrating that the processing was an autocatalytic process. To define the exact cleavage sites mass spectrometry was used which detected four differently processed versions of the protease. At the N-terminus, the self-processing removed the internal inhibitor and an additional 19 amino acids. At the C-terminus there was a cleavage site after Ala765 which also removed the strep-tag. This explained the inability to detect the purified (His)6-BAJ93208-strep protease with an anti-strep-tag antibody. Finally, an additional alanine was removed either at the N-terminus (Ala119) or at the C-terminus (Ala764).
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Plattner
- Division of Plant Protection, Department of Crop Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Clemens Gruber
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Friedrich Altmann
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Holger Bohlmann
- Division of Plant Protection, Department of Crop Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
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Zhu H, Xu BL, Liang X, Yang YR, Tang XF, Tang B. Molecular basis for auto- and hetero-catalytic maturation of a thermostable subtilase from thermophilic Bacillus sp. WF146. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:34826-38. [PMID: 24145031 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.498774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The proform of the WF146 protease, an extracellular subtilase produced by thermophilic Bacillus sp. WF146, matures efficiently at high temperatures. Here we report that the proform, which contains an N-terminal propeptide composed of a core domain (N*) and a linker peptide, is intrinsically able to mature via multiple pathways. One autocatalytic pathway is initiated by cis-processing of N* to generate an autoprocessed complex N*-I(WT), and this step is followed by truncation of the linker peptide and degradation of N*. Another autocatalytic pathway is initiated by trans-processing of the linker peptide followed by degradation of N*. Unlike most reported subtilases, the maturation of the WF146 protease occurs not only autocatalytically but also hetero-catalytically whereby heterogeneous proteases accelerate the maturation of the WF146 protease via trans-processing of the proform and N*-I(WT). Although N* acts as an intramolecular chaperone and an inhibitor of the mature enzyme, the linker peptide is susceptible to proteolysis, allowing the trans-processing reaction to occur auto- and hetero-catalytically. These studies also demonstrate that the WF146 protease undergoes subtle structural adjustments during the maturation process and that the binding of Ca(2+) is required for routing the proform to mature properly at high temperatures. Interestingly, under Ca(2+)-free conditions, the proform is cis-processed into a unique propeptide-intermediate complex (N*-I(E)) capable of re-synthesis of the proform. Based on the basic catalytic principle of serine proteases and these experimental results, a mechanism for the cis-processing/re-synthesis equilibrium of the proform and the role of the linker peptide in regulation of this equilibrium has been proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zhu
- From the State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
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