1
|
Burns JS, Bather JR, Sergeyev O, Lee MM, Korrick SA, Sokolov S, Kovalev S, Koch HM, Lebedev AT, Mínguez-Alarcón L, Hauser R, Williams PL. Longitudinal association of prepubertal urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations with pubertal progression among a cohort of boys. Environ Res 2023; 233:116330. [PMID: 37348639 PMCID: PMC10575624 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epidemiological studies have reported associations of anti-androgenic phthalate metabolite concentrations with later onset of male puberty, but few have assessed associations with progression. OBJECTIVES We examined the association of prepubertal urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations with trajectories of pubertal progression among Russian boys. METHODS At enrollment (ages 8-9 years), medical history, dietary, and demographic information were collected. At entry and annually to age 19 years, physical examinations including testicular volume (TV) were performed and spot urines collected. Each boy's prepubertal urine samples were pooled, and 15 phthalate metabolites were quantified by isotope dilution LC-MS/MS at Moscow State University. Metabolites of anti-androgenic parent phthalates were included: butylbenzyl (BBzP), di-n-butyl (DnBP), diisobutyl (DiBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) (DEHP) and diisononyl (DiNP) phthalates. We calculated the molar sums of DEHP, DiNP, and all AAP metabolites. We used group-based trajectory models (GBTMs) to identify subgroups of boys who followed similar pubertal trajectories from ages 8-19 years based on annual TV. We used multinomial and ordinal regression models to evaluate whether prepubertal log-transformed phthalate metabolite concentrations were associated with slower or faster pubertal progression trajectories, adjusting for covariates. RESULTS 304 boys contributed a total of 752 prepubertal urine samples (median 2, range: 1-6) for creation of individual pools. The median length of follow-up was 10.0 years; 79% of boys were followed beyond age 15. We identified three pubertal progression groups: slower (34%), moderate (43%), and faster (23%) progression. A standard deviation increase in urinary log-monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) concentrations was associated with higher adjusted odds of being in the slow versus faster pubertal progression trajectory (aOR 1.47, 95% CI 1.06-2.04). None of the other phthalate metabolites were associated with pubertal progression. CONCLUSIONS On average, boys with higher concentrations of prepubertal urinary MBzP had a slower tempo of pubertal progression, perhaps attributable to the disruption of androgen-dependent biological pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J S Burns
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 1, 14th Floor, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - J R Bather
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 2, 4th Floor, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - O Sergeyev
- Group of Epigenetic Epidemiology, Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskye Gory, House 1, Building 40, Room 322, 119992, Moscow, Russia
| | - M M Lee
- Nemours Children's Health/Sidney Kimmel Medical School, Jefferson University, 1600 Rockland Road, Wilmington, DE, USA
| | - S A Korrick
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 1, 14th Floor, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 401 Park Drive, 3rd Floor West, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - S Sokolov
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Leninskie Gory 1/3, Russia
| | - S Kovalev
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Leninskie Gory 1/3, Russia
| | - H M Koch
- Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance - Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bürkle-de-la-Camp-Platz 1, 44789, Bochum, Germany
| | - A T Lebedev
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Leninskie Gory 1/3, Russia
| | - L Mínguez-Alarcón
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 1, 14th Floor, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 401 Park Drive, 3rd Floor West, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - R Hauser
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 1, 14th Floor, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Kresge Building, 9th Floor, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - P L Williams
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 2, 4th Floor, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Kresge Building, 9th Floor, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Burns JS, Sergeyev O, Lee MM, Williams PL, Mínguez-Alarcón L, Plaku-Alakbarova B, Sokolov S, Kovalev S, Koch HM, Lebedev AT, Hauser R, Korrick SA. Associations of prepubertal urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations with pubertal onset among a longitudinal cohort of boys. Environ Res 2022; 212:113218. [PMID: 35390299 PMCID: PMC9310051 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although phthalate exposures have been associated with adverse effects on male reproductive health, few studies have explored longitudinal associations with male pubertal development. OBJECTIVES We examined the association of prepubertal urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites with age at pubertal onset in a prospective cohort of Russian boys. METHODS At enrollment at ages 8-9 years, medical history, dietary, and demographic information was collected. At entry and annually, physical examinations and pubertal staging [Genitalia (G), Pubarche (P), and testicular volume (TV, in ml)] were conducted and spot urines were collected. Prepubertal urine samples (defined as either TV = 1, 2 and G = 1, 2 or TV = 3 and G = 1) were pooled for each boy and phthalate metabolite concentrations were quantified using isotope dilution LC-MS/MS at Moscow State University. We measured 15 metabolites including those from anti-androgenic parent phthalates (AAPs) such as di (2-ethylhexyl) (DEHP) and di-isononyl (DiNP) phthalates as well as monobenzyl (MBzP), mono-n-butyl (MnBP), and mono-isobutyl (MiBP) metabolites. We calculated the molar sums of DEHP (∑DEHP), DiNP (∑DiNP), and AAP (∑AAP) metabolites. Separate interval-censored models were used to assess associations of quartiles of prepubertal phthalate metabolites with each pubertal onset indicator, G2+, P2+ and TV > 3 mL, adjusted for covariates and urine specific gravity. RESULTS 304 boys had 752 prepubertal urine samples (median 2, range: 1-6) for pooling. In adjusted models, higher urinary AAPs were consistently associated with later pubertal onset (P2) with mean shifts ranging from 8.4 to 14.2 months for the highest versus lowest quartiles. Significantly later onset for G2 and TV > 3 mL was observed for higher versus lower quartiles of MiBP, MBzP, ∑DEHP and ∑DiNP. CONCLUSIONS On average, boys with higher concentrations of prepubertal urinary AAPs had later pubertal onset by six months to over a year. The impact of AAPs on timing of male puberty may be attributable to disruption of androgen-dependent biological pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jane S Burns
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 1, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Oleg Sergeyev
- Group of Epigenetic Epidemiology, Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskye Gory, House 1, Building 40, Room 322, 119992, Moscow, Russia; Chapaevsk Medical Association, Meditsinskaya Str., 3a, Chapaevsk, Samara Region, 446100, Russia
| | - Mary M Lee
- Nemours Children's Health, 1600 Rockland Road, Wilmington, 19803, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Sidney Kimmel Medical School, Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Paige L Williams
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 2, Room 443, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 677 Huntington Ave., Kresge Building, 9th Floor, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Lidia Mínguez-Alarcón
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 1, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 401 Park Drive, 3rd Floor West, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Bora Plaku-Alakbarova
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 1, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Epidemiology Division, Optuminsight Life Sciences, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sergey Sokolov
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Leninskie Gory 1/3, Russian Federation
| | - Sergey Kovalev
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Leninskie Gory 1/3, Russian Federation
| | - Holger M Koch
- Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance - Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bürkle-de-la-Camp-Platz 1, 44789, Bochum, Germany
| | - Albert T Lebedev
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Leninskie Gory 1/3, Russian Federation
| | - Russ Hauser
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 1, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 677 Huntington Ave., Kresge Building, 9th Floor, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Susan A Korrick
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 1, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 401 Park Drive, 3rd Floor West, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Mazzarino J, Puel O, Jesuran-Perelroizen M. Update on pubertal development in France. PROSPEL - Observational study. Preliminary feasibility study. Arch Pediatr 2019; 26:108-114. [PMID: 30638763 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcped.2018.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Recent publications report a decrease in the age of onset of pubertal changes in the United States and Europe. The PROSPEL study (PRemier Observatoire des Stades Pubertaire en Libéral) will provide the first French data on the age at which pubertal signs appear. Before considering this work at the national level, we wanted to assess its feasibility. MATERIALS AND METHODS Private pediatricians and general practitioners were recruited in Bordeaux and Toulouse. Before participating in the study, they had been trained in pubertal assessment and then evaluated. Each physician completed 1-4 weeks of inclusion during which children aged 5-18 years seen in consultation were included, except children who were adopted or had a chronic condition. Pubertal stages were assessed according to Tanner's classification and using an orchidometer for testicular volume. The causes of non-realization were documented where appropriate. Inter-individual reproducibility was analyzed by a double examination for a number of children who had previously given their consent. RESULTS In total, 63 physicians participated in the study (35 pediatricians and 28 general practitioners). All were certified at the end of the training session. A total of 2646 children were included (1318 girls, 1328 boys) with a homogeneous age distribution. The study was carried out in 83.5% of cases. The main reason for non-realization was that physicians did not propose the study to patients who met the criteria (10.1%). Lack of time was the main reason. Inter-individual reproducibility was excellent. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Our results attest to the good feasibility of the PROSPEL study. They allowed us to validate our methodology, the training and certification of the participating physicians, and to consider extending the study to the national level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Mazzarino
- Faculté de médecine, université de Bordeaux, 146, rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France.
| | - O Puel
- Cabinet de pédiatrie, 88, avenue Pasteur, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - M Jesuran-Perelroizen
- Cabinet d'endocrinologie-pédiatrie, 14, rue du rempart Saint-Étienne, 31000 Toulouse, France
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Khokhar A, Nagarajan S, Ravichandran Y, Perez-Colon S. Pubertal assessment: targeted educational intervention for pediatric trainees. Int J Adolesc Med Health 2017; 31:/j/ijamh.ahead-of-print/ijamh-2017-0064/ijamh-2017-0064.xml. [PMID: 28820733 DOI: 10.1515/ijamh-2017-0064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Background Timely and periodic pubertal assessment in children is vital to identify puberty related disorders. Pediatricians need to have working knowledge of puberty time and tempo. Pediatric residency is an important platform to acquire physical examination skills including pubertal assessment. Objective An educational intervention for teaching pubertal assessment was piloted on pediatric residents at our institution. Methods The intervention comprised of interactive lecture series, ID badge size Tanner stage cards and Tanner posters placed in residents' continuity clinics. Pre-intervention, post-intervention and 3 months post-intervention surveys for participating trainees were administered to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. Attitudes, practices, knowledge scores, and barriers to Tanner staging conduct were analyzed. Results Forty-three residents participated in the intervention. Knowledge scores of PGY1 (5.95 ± 1.6 vs. 7.47 ± 1.4, p < 0.01) improved right after the intervention, as did self-reported clinical practices of all trainees 3 months post- intervention with regards to conducting external genital examination and performing pubertal assessment. Confidence levels of pediatric trainees in conducting pubertal assessment and comfort levels in assessing the need for endocrine referral based on abnormal Tanner staging improved after the intervention, although the effect was not statistically significant. Conclusion Our intervention is a worthwhile technique for teaching pubertal assessment to residents as it is simple to conduct, easily reproducible, provides baseline knowledge needed for recognition of normal pubertal development and puberty related conditions, and instills confidence in residents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Khokhar
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center and Kings County Hospital Center, Brooklyn, NY,USA, Phone: 315-464-5726, Fax: 315-464-3532
| | - Sairaman Nagarajan
- Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, USA
- Kings County Hospital Center, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Yagnaram Ravichandran
- Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, USA
- Kings County Hospital Center, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Sheila Perez-Colon
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center and Kings County Hospital Center, Brooklyn, NY,USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ens A, Janzen K, Palmert MR. Development of an Online Learning Module to Improve Pediatric Residents' Confidence and Knowledge of the Pubertal Examination. J Adolesc Health 2017; 60:292-298. [PMID: 27986457 DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Pediatric residents must know how to perform pubertal examinations. The initial objective of this study was to evaluate pediatric resident knowledge and comfort related to the pubertal examination and to determine whether and why these examinations are avoided. The subsequent objective was to develop and assess a learning module (LM) addressing identified education gaps. METHODS A learning needs assessment (LNA) was administered to residents in four Canadian pediatric training programs. Identified themes and knowledge gaps were used to develop an online, case-based LM. A randomized assessment of the LM was conducted among residents from nine training programs across Canada. RESULTS Sixty-four residents completed the LNA. About 52% reported discomfort introducing the pubertal examination, 50% reported a lack of confidence related to the examination, and 56% reported having avoided a warranted examination. Ninety-seven residents participated in the LM assessment. The baseline results were similar to those from the LNA in terms of discomfort, lack of confidence, and avoidance related to pubertal examinations. However, the intervention group showed improvement on a knowledge assessment compared with control group (p < .001). Confidence levels also improved in the intervention group LM (p < .01). Most residents (95%) stated they found the LM to be useful. CONCLUSIONS Residents report being uncomfortable with and avoiding the pubertal examination and have significant knowledge gaps. The online, case-based LM used in this study improved the knowledge and confidence related to this aspect of pediatric care and may be an effective adjunct to pediatric training.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Ens
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada; Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Department of Pediatrics, Markham Stouffville Hospital, Markham, Canada.
| | - Katharine Janzen
- Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Mark R Palmert
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada; Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Lilge L, Terry MB, Walter J, Pinnaduwage D, Glendon G, Hanna D, Tammemagi ML, Bradbury A, Buys S, Daly M, John EM, Knight JA, Andrulis IL. Non-invasive optical spectroscopic monitoring of breast development during puberty. Breast Cancer Res 2017; 19:12. [PMID: 28166807 PMCID: PMC5294901 DOI: 10.1186/s13058-017-0805-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tanner staging (TS), a five-stage classification indicating no breast tissue (TS1) to full breast development (TS5), is used both in health research and clinical care to assess the onset of breast development (TS2) and duration in each stage. Currently, TS is measured both visually and through palpation but non-invasive methods will improve comparisons across settings. Methods We used optical spectroscopy (OS) measures from 102 girls at the Ontario site of the LEGACY girls study (average age 12 years, range 10.0–15.4 years) to determine whether breast tissue optical properties map to each TS. We further examined whether these properties differed by age, body mass index (BMI), and breast cancer risk score (BCRS) by examining the major principal components (PC). Results Age and BMI increased linearly with increasing TS. Eight PCs explained 99.9% of the variation in OS data. Unlike the linear increase with age and BMI, OS components had distinct patterns by TS: the onset of breast development (TS1 to TS2) was marked by elevation of PC3 scores indicating an increase in adipose tissue and decrease in signal from the pectoral muscle; transition to TS3 was marked by elevation of PC6 and PC7 and decline of PC2 scores indicating an increase in glandular or dense tissue; and transition to TS4+ by decline of PC2 scores representing a further increase in glandular tissue relative to adipose tissue. Of the eight PCs, three component scores (PC4, PC5, and PC8) remained in the best-fitting model of BCRS, suggesting different levels of collagen in the breast tissue by BCRS. Conclusions Our results suggest that serial measures of OS, a non-invasive assessment of breast tissue characteristics, can be used as an objective outcome that does not rely on visual inspection or palpation, for studying drivers of breast development. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13058-017-0805-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lothar Lilge
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, 101 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5G1L7, Canada.,Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, 101 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5G1L7, Canada
| | - Mary Beth Terry
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA.,Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jane Walter
- Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, 101 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5G1L7, Canada
| | - Dushanthi Pinnaduwage
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5G 1X5, Canada
| | - Gord Glendon
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5G 1X5, Canada
| | - Danielle Hanna
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5G 1X5, Canada
| | - Mai-Liis Tammemagi
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5G 1X5, Canada
| | - Angela Bradbury
- Departments of Medicine and Medical Ethics & Health Policy, Perelman School of Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Saundra Buys
- Department of Medicine, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Mary Daly
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Esther M John
- Cancer Prevention Institute of California, Fremont, CA, USA.,Department of Health Research & Policy (Epidemiology), and Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Julia A Knight
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5G 1X5, Canada.,Division of Epidemiology, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Irene L Andrulis
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5G 1X5, Canada. .,Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
Mammalia are so named based on the presence of the mammary gland in the breast. The mammary gland is an epidermal appendage, derived from the apocrine glands. The human breast consists of the parenchyma and stroma, originating from ectodermal and mesodermal elements, respectively. Development of the human breast is distinctive for several reasons. The human breast houses the mammary gland that produces and delivers milk through development of an extensive tree-like network of branched ducts. It is also characterized by cellular plasticity, with extensive remodeling in adulthood, a factor that increases its susceptibility to carcinogenesis. Also, breast development occurs in distinct stages via complex epithelial-mesenchymal interactions, orchestrated by signaling pathways under the regulation of systemic hormones. Congenital and acquired disorders of the breast often have a basis in development, making its study essential to understanding breast pathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Asma Javed
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Aida Lteif
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| |
Collapse
|