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Nieto-Claudín A, Sacristán C, Deem SL, Lewbart GA, Colosimo G, Esperón F, Sevilla C, Gentile G. Novel herpesvirus in the critically endangered Galapagos pink land iguana. Acta Trop 2024; 252:107127. [PMID: 38316240 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2024.107127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
Virus surveillance in wildlife is important to understanding ecosystem health, taxonomy, and evolution. Nevertheless, viruses in reptiles, and specifically in squamates, continue to be understudied. Herein, we conducted a health assessment on the critically endangered Galapagos pink land iguana (Conolophus marthae) and the vulnerable Galapagos land iguana (Conolophus subcristatus). We collected oral and/or cloacal swabs from 47 clinically healthy iguanas and tested for adenovirus (cloacal swabs, n = 47) and herpesvirus (oral swabs, n = 45) using broad-spectrum PCRs. Two out of 38 (5.3 %) Galapagos pink land iguanas tested positive for herpesvirus, while no herpesvirus was detected in all Galapagos land iguanas (n = 7). Both herpesviral sequences were identical between them and divergent (61.9 % amino acid identity) when compared to the closest herpesvirus sequences available in GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ. The genetic distance between this and other herpesviruses is consistent with its classification as a novel virus species. All iguanas were negative for adenovirus. This is the first description of a herpesvirus in iguanas of the Galapagos islands, and the first report of a potential pathogen for the iconic Galapagos pink land iguana. Further research is needed to understand the implications of this virus in the conservation and management of one of the most endangered iguana species in the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ainoa Nieto-Claudín
- Charles Darwin Foundation. Charles Darwin Avenue, Santa Cruz 200350, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador; Saint Louis Institute for Conservation Medicine, One Government Drive, Saint Louis, MO 63110, United States.
| | - Carlos Sacristán
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), CSIC, Valdeolmos 28130, Spain.
| | - Sharon L Deem
- Charles Darwin Foundation. Charles Darwin Avenue, Santa Cruz 200350, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador; Saint Louis Institute for Conservation Medicine, One Government Drive, Saint Louis, MO 63110, United States
| | - Gregory A Lewbart
- North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, NC 27607, United States; Universidad San Francisco de Quito (USFQ) & UNC-Chapel Hill Galápagos Science Center (GSC), Av. Alsacio Northia, San Cristobal 200150, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador
| | | | - Fernando Esperón
- Veterinary Department, School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Odón 28670, Spain
| | - Christian Sevilla
- Galapagos National Park Directorate, Santa Cruz 200350, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador
| | - Gabriele Gentile
- Department of Biology, Tor Vergata University, Rome 00133, Italy
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Ramon-Gomez K, Ron SR, Deem SL, Pike KN, Stevens C, Izurieta JC, Nieto-Claudin A. Plastic ingestion in giant tortoises: An example of a novel anthropogenic impact for Galapagos wildlife. Environ Pollut 2024; 340:122780. [PMID: 37863249 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023]
Abstract
The human population of Galapagos has rapidly increased in the last decades accelerating the anthropogenic pressures on the archipelago's natural resources. The growing human footprint, including inadequate management of garbage, may lead to conservation conflicts. Here, we assessed the ingestion of debris by Western Santa Cruz giant tortoises (Chelonoidis porteri) within human-modified and protected areas. Additionally, we characterized environmental debris and quantified tortoise abundance together with tortoise fecal samples. We processed a total of 6629 fecal samples along a gradient of anthropogenic disturbance based on human debris presence. We found 590 pieces of debris in samples within human-modified areas (mean of 3.97 items/kg of feces) and only two pieces in the protected area (mean of 0.08 items/kg of feces). Plastic waste was the predominant category in feces within the anthropic area (86.3%; n = 511), followed by cloth, metal, paper, synthetic rubber, construction materials, and glass. On average, the proportion of plastic was higher in feces (84%) than it was in environmental debris (67%), denoting that plastics are more readily ingested than other types of debris. We also found that green, white, and light blue plastics were consumed more often than their prevalence in the environment, suggesting color discrimination. Tortoise abundance was higher in the protected area when compared to the human-modified area; however, recapture rates were higher in anthropized landscapes which increases tortoise exposure to plastics and other human associated threats. Our results indicate that plastics are frequently consumed by tortoises in the polluted anthropic areas of western Santa Cruz, but scarce in protected areas. More research is needed to understand the negative impacts associated with plastics for Galapagos terrestrial species. We encourage local stakeholders to implement current policies limiting expansion of urban areas, plastic use, and improving waste management systems to minimize threats to human and animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina Ramon-Gomez
- Charles Darwin Foundation, Charles Darwin Avenue, Santa Cruz, 200350, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador; Museo de Zoología, Escuela de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Santiago R Ron
- Museo de Zoología, Escuela de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Sharon L Deem
- Charles Darwin Foundation, Charles Darwin Avenue, Santa Cruz, 200350, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador; Saint Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine, One Government Drive, Saint Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Kyana N Pike
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, 4810, Australia
| | - Colton Stevens
- Charles Darwin Foundation, Charles Darwin Avenue, Santa Cruz, 200350, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador
| | - Juan Carlos Izurieta
- Charles Darwin Foundation, Charles Darwin Avenue, Santa Cruz, 200350, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador
| | - Ainoa Nieto-Claudin
- Charles Darwin Foundation, Charles Darwin Avenue, Santa Cruz, 200350, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador; Saint Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine, One Government Drive, Saint Louis, MO, 63110, USA; Complutense University of Madrid, Veterinary Faculty, Puerta de Hierro Av, Madrid, 28040, Spain.
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Barroso P, Palencia P. Camera traps reveal a high prevalence of sarcoptic mange in red foxes from northern Spain. Res Vet Sci 2024; 166:105098. [PMID: 38029489 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.105098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
The mite Sarcoptes scabiei affects numerous mammal species causing the sarcoptic mange, a widespread disease with relevance for wildlife conservation, welfare, and management. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) could become infested by direct and indirect routes leading to external skin lesions potentially recognizable by devices such as camera traps (CTs). In the present study, 86 randomly placed CTs were used to investigate the apparent prevalence and severity of S. scabiei in a red fox population from northern Spain. Their potential environmental and population-related drivers were also assessed. A total of 341 independent encounters were examined to visually identify mange-compatible lesions. The apparent prevalence was 19.16% (confidence interval (CI) 95%: 15.08-23.80) of which 82.81% (CI95%: 71.33-91.10) were severe. Our results revealed that habitat attributes such as lower altitudes, higher coverage of water-linked habitats and woodland predominance, were significant predictors of the apparent risk of mange. The models also suggested that the apparent prevalence of mange was associated with poor body condition and elevated frequencies of spatial coincidence among fox encounters, which facilitates indirect transmission. Interestingly, we did not observe mange-compatible lesions in other sympatric wild species (>15,000 encounters examined). This could be explained by the mite's host specificity and the low probability that these other potential hosts use sites where transmission among foxes usually occurs, such as dens. This study illustrates how camera trapping can be used as an interesting tool for the surveillance of wildlife diseases, thus overcoming the logistic constraints derived from direct sampling and allowing the early detection and better management of pathogens in the riskiest areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Barroso
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, Turin 10095, Italy; Departament of Animal Health, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, León 24071, Spain.
| | - P Palencia
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, Turin 10095, Italy; Biodiversity Research Institute (University of Oviedo - CSIC - Principado de Asturias), Mieres, Spain
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Lobanov VA, Konecsni KA, Scandrett WB, Jenkins EJ. Identification of Trichinella taxa by ITS-1 amplicon next-generation sequencing with an improved resolution for detecting underrepresented genotypes in mixed natural infections. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:466. [PMID: 38129932 PMCID: PMC10734138 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-06035-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Amplicon-based next-generation sequencing (NGS) has rapidly gained popularity as a powerful method for delineating taxa in complex communities, including helminths. Here, we applied this approach to identify species and genotypes of zoonotic nematodes of the Trichinella genus. A known limitation of the current multiplex PCR (mPCR) assay recommended by the International Commission on Trichinellosis is that it does not differentiate Trichinella nativa from T. chanchalensis. METHODS The new assay entails deep sequencing of an amplified variable fragment of the ribosomal cistron's (rDNA) internal transcribed spacer 1 using the Illumina platform. The assay was evaluated using first-stage larvae (L1) of select laboratory strains of various Trichinella taxa mixed in known proportions and then validated using archived L1 from 109 wildlife hosts. The species/genotypes of these L1 isolates from wildlife were previously determined using mPCR. RESULTS NGS data analysis for Trichinella laboratory strains selected as representative of North American fauna revealed a sequence representation bias. Trichinella pseudospiralis, a non-encapsulated species, was the most underrepresented when mixed with T. spiralis, T. murrelli, T. nativa and Trichinella T6 in equal quantities. However, five L1 of T. pseudospiralis were readily revealed by NGS in a mix with 2000 L1 of T. nativa (1:400 ratio). From naturally infected wildlife, all Trichinella taxa revealed by mPCR were also identified by NGS in 103 of 107 (96.3%) samples amplified on both assays. NGS identified additional taxa in 11 (10.3%) samples, whereas additional taxa were revealed by mPCR in only four (3.7%) samples. Most isolates comprised single or mixed infections of T. nativa and Trichinella T6. On NGS, T. chanchalensis (T13) was detected in combination with Trichinella T6 in a wolverine (Gulo gulo) and in combination with T. nativa and Trichinella T6 in a marten (Martes americana) from the Northwest Territories, Canada. CONCLUSIONS This new NGS assay demonstrates strong potential as a single assay for identifying all recognised Trichinella taxa as well as improved sensitivity for detecting under-represented and novel genotypes in mixed infections. In addition, we report a new host record for T. chanchalensis in American marten.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav A Lobanov
- Center for Food-borne and Animal Parasitology, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
| | - Kelly A Konecsni
- Center for Food-borne and Animal Parasitology, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - W Brad Scandrett
- Center for Food-borne and Animal Parasitology, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Emily J Jenkins
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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Nieto-Claudin A, Deem SL, Rodríguez C, Cano S, Moity N, Cabrera F, Esperón F. Antimicrobial resistance in Galapagos tortoises as an indicator of the growing human footprint. Environ Pollut 2021; 284:117453. [PMID: 34090252 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance has become one of the main public health threats worldwide with anthropogenic activities driving the spread of resistance. Understanding and combatting the spread of resistant bacteria is a top priority for global health institutions, and it is included as one of the main goals of the One Health initiative. Giant tortoises (Chelonoidis spp.), some of the most iconic species on Earth, are widely distributed across the Galapagos archipelago and are thus perfect candidates to test the hypothesis that wildlife species in the Galapagos carry antimicrobial resistant genes (ARGs) associated with human activities. We sampled a total of 200 free-living Galapagos tortoises from western Santa Cruz Island (C. porteri), the most human-populated island of the archipelago, and 70 tortoises (C. vandenburghi) from the isolated Alcedo Volcano on Isabela Island, a natural area with minimal human presence. Fecal samples were analyzed by quantitative PCR for a panel of 21 ARGs conferring resistance for eight antimicrobial classes. We found ARGs in both Santa Cruz and Alcedo Volcano giant tortoises; however, both qualitative and quantitative results showed higher loads of ARGs in tortoises inhabiting the human modified environments of Santa Cruz. Moreover, Santa Cruz tortoises sampled in higher human-modified landscapes (i.e., farmlands and urban areas) presented a higher number of ARGs, antimicrobial classes, and multi-resistant microbiomes than those from less anthropized areas within the same island. Our findings suggest that human activities in Galapagos have a negative impact on ecosystem health through ARG dispersal. This research highlights a new threat for the health and conservation of the unique wildlife of the Galapagos, their ecosystems, and the humans inhabiting this World Heritage Site. Our recommendation to local policy makers is to control and reduce the use of antibiotics in both human and animal health, thus helping enforce antimicrobial regulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ainoa Nieto-Claudin
- Charles Darwin Research Station, Charles Darwin Foundation, Santa Cruz, Galapagos, Ecuador; Complutense University of Madrid, Veterinary Faculty, Puerta de Hierro Av, Madrid, 28040. Spain; Saint Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine, One Government Drive, Saint Louis, MO, 63110. USA.
| | - Sharon L Deem
- Charles Darwin Research Station, Charles Darwin Foundation, Santa Cruz, Galapagos, Ecuador; Saint Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine, One Government Drive, Saint Louis, MO, 63110. USA.
| | - Casilda Rodríguez
- Complutense University of Madrid, Veterinary Faculty, Puerta de Hierro Av, Madrid, 28040. Spain.
| | - Santiago Cano
- Complutense University of Madrid, Veterinary Faculty, Puerta de Hierro Av, Madrid, 28040. Spain.
| | - Nicolas Moity
- Charles Darwin Research Station, Charles Darwin Foundation, Santa Cruz, Galapagos, Ecuador.
| | - Freddy Cabrera
- Charles Darwin Research Station, Charles Darwin Foundation, Santa Cruz, Galapagos, Ecuador.
| | - Fernando Esperón
- Complutense University of Madrid, Veterinary Faculty, Puerta de Hierro Av, Madrid, 28040. Spain; INIA-CISA. Algete-El Casar Road, Valdeolmos, 28130. Spain.
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Figueroa DM, Kuisma E, Matson MJ, Ondzie AU, Bushmaker T, Seifert SN, Ntoumi F, Escudero-Pérez B, Muñoz-Fontela C, Walzer C, Olson SH, Goma-Nkoua C, Mombouli JV, Fischer RJ, Munster VJ. Development and validation of portable, field-deployable Ebola virus point-of-encounter diagnostic assay for wildlife surveillance. One Health Outlook 2021; 3:9. [PMID: 34024280 PMCID: PMC8142476 DOI: 10.1186/s42522-021-00041-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Early detection of Ebola virus spillover into wildlife is crucial for rapid response. We developed and validated a portable, cold-chain independent Ebola virus RT-qPCR assay. METHODS The field syringe-based RNA extraction method was compared with a conventional laboratory-based spin-column RNA extraction method. Next, the qPCR efficiency and limit of detection of the assay was compared to standard laboratory-based reagents and equipment. The specificity of the assay was confirmed by testing against multiple Zaire Ebolavirus (EBOV) variants and other ebolavirus species. Lastly, swabs from an EBOV-infected non-human primate carcass, stored at environmental conditions mimicking central and west Africa, were analyzed to mimic in field conditions. RESULTS The syringe-based RNA extraction method performed comparably to a standard laboratory spin-column-based method. The developed assay was comparable in sensitivity and specificity to standard laboratory-based diagnostic assays. The assay specifically detected EBOV and not any of the other tested ebolavirus species, including Reston ebolavirus, Sudan ebolavirus, Bundibugyo ebolavirus, and Tai Forrest ebolavirus. Notably, the assays limit of detection for EBOV isolates were all below 4 genome copies/μL. The assay was able to detect EBOV in oral, nasal, thoracic cavity, and conjunctiva swabs obtained from an infected non-human primate. CONCLUSION We developed a field-based Ebolavirus assay which is comparable in sensitivity and specificity to laboratory-based assays. Currently, the assay is being incorporated into wildlife carcass surveillance in the Republic of the Congo and is being adapted for other infectious disease agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dania M Figueroa
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Eeva Kuisma
- Wildflife Conservation Society, Health Program, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - M Jeremiah Matson
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
- Marshall University, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Alain U Ondzie
- Wildflife Conservation Society, Health Program, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Trent Bushmaker
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Stephanie N Seifert
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Francine Ntoumi
- Fondation Congolaise pour la Recherche Médicale (FCRM), Brazzaville, Republic of Congo
| | - Beatriz Escudero-Pérez
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Strasse 74, 20359, Hamburg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hamburg, Bernhard Nocht Strasse 74, 20359, Hamburg, Germany
| | - César Muñoz-Fontela
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Strasse 74, 20359, Hamburg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hamburg, Bernhard Nocht Strasse 74, 20359, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Chris Walzer
- Wildflife Conservation Society, Health Program, Bronx, NY, USA
- Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sarah H Olson
- Wildflife Conservation Society, Health Program, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Cynthia Goma-Nkoua
- Laboratoire National de Santé Publique, Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo
| | | | - Robert J Fischer
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Vincent J Munster
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA.
- Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID/NIH, 903S 4th Street, Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA.
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Tomaselli M, Elkin B, Kutz S, Harms NJ, Nymo HI, Davison T, Leclerc LM, Branigan M, Dumond M, Tryland M, Checkley S. A Transdisciplinary Approach to Brucella in Muskoxen of the Western Canadian Arctic 1989-2016. Ecohealth 2019; 16:488-501. [PMID: 31414318 PMCID: PMC6858907 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-019-01433-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Brucella serostatus was evaluated in 3189 muskoxen sampled between 1989 and 2016 from various locations of the Canadian Arctic archipelago and mainland, near the communities of Sachs Harbour and Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories, and Cambridge Bay and Kugluktuk, Nunavut. Brucella antibodies were found only in muskoxen sampled around Cambridge Bay, both on southern Victoria Island and on the adjacent mainland (Kent Peninsula). Consistent with participatory epidemiology data documented from local harvesters describing increased Brucella-like syndromes (swollen joints and lameness) and a decreased proportion of juveniles, the apparent Brucella seroprevalence in the sampled muskoxen of the Cambridge Bay area increased from 0.9% (95% CI 0.3-2.1) in the period of 1989-2001 to 5.6% (95% CI 3.3-8.9) in 2010-2016. The zoonotic bacteria Brucella suis biovar 4 was also cultured from tissues of muskoxen sampled on Victoria Island near Ulukhaktok in 1996 (n = 1) and Cambridge Bay in 1998, 2014, and 2016 (n = 3). Overall, our data demonstrate that B. suis biovar 4 is found in muskoxen that are harvested for food and by guided hunts on Victoria Island and Kent Peninsula, adding an important public health dimension to this study. Robust participatory epidemiology data on muskox health and diseases greatly enhanced the interpretation of our Cambridge Bay data and, combined with the serological and microbiological data, provide compelling evidence that the prevalence of B. suis biovar 4 has increased in this area since the late 1990s. This study enhances the available knowledge on Brucella exposure and infection in muskoxen and provides an example of how scientific knowledge and local knowledge can work together to better understand disease status in wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matilde Tomaselli
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
- Canadian High Arctic Research Station, Polar Knowledge Canada, Cambridge Bay, NU, Canada.
| | - Brett Elkin
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
- Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Government of Northwest Territories, Yellowknife, Inuvik, NT, Canada
| | - Susan Kutz
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - N Jane Harms
- Department of Environment, Animal Health Unit, Yukon Government, Whitehorse, YT, Canada
| | - H Ingebjørg Nymo
- Research Food Safety and Animal Health, The Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Tracy Davison
- Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Government of Northwest Territories, Yellowknife, Inuvik, NT, Canada
| | | | - Marsha Branigan
- Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Government of Northwest Territories, Yellowknife, Inuvik, NT, Canada
| | - Mathieu Dumond
- Department of Environment, Government of Nunavut, Kugluktuk, NU, Canada
| | - Morten Tryland
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, Research Group for Arctic Infection Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Sylvia Checkley
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
- Alberta Provincial Laboratory for Public Health, Calgary, AB, Canada
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