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Biskupiak Z, Ha VV, Rohaj A, Bulaj G. Digital Therapeutics for Improving Effectiveness of Pharmaceutical Drugs and Biological Products: Preclinical and Clinical Studies Supporting Development of Drug + Digital Combination Therapies for Chronic Diseases. J Clin Med 2024; 13:403. [PMID: 38256537 PMCID: PMC10816409 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13020403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Limitations of pharmaceutical drugs and biologics for chronic diseases (e.g., medication non-adherence, adverse effects, toxicity, or inadequate efficacy) can be mitigated by mobile medical apps, known as digital therapeutics (DTx). Authorization of adjunct DTx by the US Food and Drug Administration and draft guidelines on "prescription drug use-related software" illustrate opportunities to create drug + digital combination therapies, ultimately leading towards drug-device combination products (DTx has a status of medical devices). Digital interventions (mobile, web-based, virtual reality, and video game applications) demonstrate clinically meaningful benefits for people living with Alzheimer's disease, dementia, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, chronic pain, epilepsy, depression, and anxiety. In the respective animal disease models, preclinical studies on environmental enrichment and other non-pharmacological modalities (physical activity, social interactions, learning, and music) as surrogates for DTx "active ingredients" also show improved outcomes. In this narrative review, we discuss how drug + digital combination therapies can impact translational research, drug discovery and development, generic drug repurposing, and gene therapies. Market-driven incentives to create drug-device combination products are illustrated by Humira® (adalimumab) facing a "patent-cliff" competition with cheaper and more effective biosimilars seamlessly integrated with DTx. In conclusion, pharma and biotech companies, patients, and healthcare professionals will benefit from accelerating integration of digital interventions with pharmacotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zack Biskupiak
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Victor Vinh Ha
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Aarushi Rohaj
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
- The Spencer Fox Eccles School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84113, USA
| | - Grzegorz Bulaj
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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Rosell-Hidalgo A, Eakins J, Walker P, Moore AL, Ghafourian T. Risk Assessment of Psychotropic Drugs on Mitochondrial Function Using In Vitro Assays. Biomedicines 2023; 11:3272. [PMID: 38137493 PMCID: PMC10741027 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11123272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are potential targets responsible for some drug- and xenobiotic-induced organ toxicities. However, molecular mechanisms of drug-induced mitochondrial toxicities are mostly unknown. Here, multiple in vitro assays were used to investigate the effects of 22 psychotropic drugs on mitochondrial function. The acute extracellular flux assay identified inhibitors of the electron transport chain (ETC), i.e., aripiprazole, phenytoin, and fluoxetine, an uncoupler (reserpine), substrate inhibitors (quetiapine, carbamazepine, buspirone, and tianeptine), and cytotoxic compounds (chlorpromazine and valproic acid) in HepG2 cells. Using permeabilized HepG2 cells revealed minimum effective concentrations of 66.3, 6730, 44.5, and 72.1 µM for the inhibition of complex-I-linked respiration for quetiapine, valproic acid, buspirone, and fluoxetine, respectively. Assessing complex-II-linked respiration in isolated rat liver mitochondria revealed haloperidol is an ETC inhibitor, chlorpromazine is an uncoupler in basal respiration and an ETC inhibitor under uncoupled respiration (IC50 = 135 µM), while olanzapine causes a mild dissipation of the membrane potential at 50 µM. This research elucidates some mechanisms of drug toxicity and provides some insight into their safety profile for clinical drug decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Rosell-Hidalgo
- Cyprotex Discovery Ltd., No. 24 Mereside, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK10 4TG, UK; (A.R.-H.); (J.E.)
| | - Julie Eakins
- Cyprotex Discovery Ltd., No. 24 Mereside, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK10 4TG, UK; (A.R.-H.); (J.E.)
| | - Paul Walker
- Cyprotex Discovery Ltd., No. 24 Mereside, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK10 4TG, UK; (A.R.-H.); (J.E.)
| | - Anthony L. Moore
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK;
| | - Taravat Ghafourian
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Barry & Judy Silverman College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, 3200 South University Drive, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328-2018, USA
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Eleftheriou G, Zandonella Callegher R, Butera R, De Santis M, Cavaliere AF, Vecchio S, Pistelli A, Mangili G, Bondi E, Somaini L, Gallo M, Balestrieri M, Albert U. Consensus Panel Recommendations for the Pharmacological Management of Pregnant Women with Depressive Disorders. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023; 20:6565. [PMID: 37623151 PMCID: PMC10454549 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20166565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The initiative of a consensus on the topic of antidepressant and anxiolytic drug use in pregnancy is developing in an area of clinical uncertainty. Although many studies have been published in recent years, there is still a paucity of authoritative evidence-based indications useful for guiding the prescription of these drugs during pregnancy, and the data from the literature are complex and require expert judgment to draw clear conclusions. METHODS For the elaboration of the consensus, we have involved the scientific societies of the sector, namely, the Italian Society of Toxicology, the Italian Society of Neuropsychopharmacology, the Italian Society of Psychiatry, the Italian Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology, the Italian Society of Drug Addiction and the Italian Society of Addiction Pathology. An interdisciplinary team of experts from different medical specialties (toxicologists, pharmacologists, psychiatrists, gynecologists, neonatologists) was first established to identify the needs underlying the consensus. The team, in its definitive structure, includes all the representatives of the aforementioned scientific societies; the task of the team was the evaluation of the most accredited international literature as well as using the methodology of the "Nominal Group Technique" with the help of a systematic review of the literature and with various discussion meetings, to arrive at the drafting and final approval of the document. RESULTS The following five areas of investigation were identified: (1) The importance of management of anxiety and depressive disorders in pregnancy, identifying the risks associated with untreated maternal depression in pregnancy. (2) The assessment of the overall risk of malformations with the antidepressant and anxiolytic drugs used in pregnancy. (3) The evaluation of neonatal adaptation disorders in the offspring of pregnant antidepressant/anxiolytic-treated women. (4) The long-term outcome of infants' cognitive development or behavior after in utero exposure to antidepressant/anxiolytic medicines. (5) The evaluation of pharmacological treatment of opioid-abusing pregnant women with depressive disorders. CONCLUSIONS Considering the state of the art, it is therefore necessary in the first instance to frame the issue of pharmacological choices in pregnant women who need treatment with antidepressant and anxiolytic drugs on the basis of data currently available in the literature. Particular attention must be paid to the evaluation of the risk/benefit ratio, understood both in terms of therapeutic benefit with respect to the potential risks of the treatment on the pregnancy and on the fetal outcome, and of the comparative risk between the treatment and the absence of treatment; in the choice prescription, the specialist needs to be aware of both the potential risks of pharmacological treatment and the equally important risks of an untreated or undertreated disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios Eleftheriou
- Italian Society of Toxicology (SITOX), via Giovanni Pascoli 3, 20129 Milan, Italy
- Poison Control Center, Hospital Papa Giovanni XXIII, 24127 Bergamo, Italy
| | - Riccardo Zandonella Callegher
- Italian Society of Psychiatry (SIP), piazza Santa Maria della Pietà 5, 00135 Rome, Italy
- Psychiatry Unit, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy
| | - Raffaella Butera
- Italian Society of Toxicology (SITOX), via Giovanni Pascoli 3, 20129 Milan, Italy
- Poison Control Center, Hospital Papa Giovanni XXIII, 24127 Bergamo, Italy
| | - Marco De Santis
- Italian Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology (SIGO), via di Porta Pinciana 6, 00187 Rome, Italy
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Franca Cavaliere
- Italian Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology (SIGO), via di Porta Pinciana 6, 00187 Rome, Italy
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Fatebenefratelli Gemelli, Isola Tiberina, 00186 Rome, Italy
| | - Sarah Vecchio
- Italian Society of Toxicology (SITOX), via Giovanni Pascoli 3, 20129 Milan, Italy
- Ser.D Biella—Drug Addiction Service, 13875 Biella, Italy
| | - Alessandra Pistelli
- Italian Society of Toxicology (SITOX), via Giovanni Pascoli 3, 20129 Milan, Italy
- Division of Clinic Toxicology, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Careggi, 50134 Florence, Italy
| | - Giovanna Mangili
- Italian Society of Neonatology (SIN), Corso Venezia 8, 20121 Milan, Italy
- Department of Neonatology, Hospital Papa Giovanni XXIII, 24127 Bergamo, Italy
| | - Emi Bondi
- Italian Society of Psychiatry (SIP), piazza Santa Maria della Pietà 5, 00135 Rome, Italy
- Department of Psychiatry, ASST Papa Giovanni XXIII, 24100 Bergamo, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Somaini
- Ser.D Biella—Drug Addiction Service, 13875 Biella, Italy
- Italian Society of Addiction Diseases (SIPAD), via Tagliamento 31, 00198 Rome, Italy
| | - Mariapina Gallo
- Poison Control Center, Hospital Papa Giovanni XXIII, 24127 Bergamo, Italy
- Italian Society for Drug Addiction (SITD), via Roma 22, 12100 Cuneo, Italy
| | - Matteo Balestrieri
- Psychiatry Unit, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy
- Italian Society of Neuropsychopharmacology (SINPF), via Cernaia 35, 00158 Rome, Italy
| | - Umberto Albert
- Italian Society of Psychiatry (SIP), piazza Santa Maria della Pietà 5, 00135 Rome, Italy
- Italian Society of Neuropsychopharmacology (SINPF), via Cernaia 35, 00158 Rome, Italy
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34128 Trieste, Italy
- Division of Clinic Psychiatry, Azienda Sanitaria Universitaria Giuliano-Isontina, 34148 Trieste, Italy
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Abstract
Estrogen deficiency increases the incidence of female anxiety disorders; however, whether estrogen deficiency alters responses to anxiolytic drugs is unknown. We studied whether long-term estrogen deprivation (ovariectomy, OVX) changes the behavior of mice to anxiolytic drugs (buspirone, diazepam, and venlafaxine), using the elevated plus maze (EPM) test. The percentages of EPM open-arm time and EPM open-arm entries of the OVX mice decreased significantly compared to control, and sham mice 2 months after OVX. The response to buspirone increased in the OVX mice at 1 week, while OVX decreased the response to diazepam at 2 months. Moreover, we found the efficacy of diazepam was significantly decreased, compared to buspirone and venlafaxine, at 2 months. These results suggest that OVX may change responses to different anxiolytic drugs. Not all anti-anxiety drugs appear to be suitable for anxiety caused by estrogen deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongdan Xu
- Institute of Chinese Medicine, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
- College of Jiamusi, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Jiamusi, China
| | - Wei Li
- Medical college, Hubei University of Arts and Sciences, Xiangyang, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Institute of Chinese Medicine, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Shuming Huang
- Institute of Chinese Medicine, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Xuewei Liu
- Department of Neuropharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, China
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Hurault-Delarue C, Chouquet C, Savy N, Lacroix I, Beau AB, Montastruc JL, Damase-Michel C. Interest of the trajectory method for the evaluation of outcomes after in utero drug exposure: example of anxiolytics and hypnotics. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2017; 26:561-569. [PMID: 28337823 DOI: 10.1002/pds.4199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Revised: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to examine the potential benefit to take into account duration and intensity of drug exposure using the recently published method based on individual drug trajectories. This approach was used to define profiles of exposure to anxiolytics/hypnotics during pregnancy and to evaluate the potential effect on newborn health. METHODS The study was performed in EFEMERIS database (54 918 mother-children pairs). An estimation of adaptation to extrauterine life was assessed using several criteria especially cardio-respiratory symptoms. A proxy variable called "neonatal pathology" was created. The occurrence of this event was studied using two approaches: The Standard Method comparing exposed and unexposed newborns, The Trajectory Method comparing the different profiles of exposure. RESULTS Around 5% of newborns (n = 2768) were identified to be exposed to anxiolytics or hypnotics during pregnancy. Using the Standard Method, 6.2% of exposed newborns developed a "neonatal pathology" against 4.8% of unexposed newborns (odds ratios [OR] = 0.9[0.8-1.2], p = 0.7). With the Trajectory Method taking into account evolution of exposure during pregnancy and treatment intensity, four profiles of pregnant women were identified. A significant difference in the rates of "neonatal pathologies" was observed between profiles (p = 0.0002). Newborns of the two profiles exposed in utero to high constant level of anxiolytics or hypnotics were more at risk of developing "neonatal pathology" than unexposed newborns (OR1 = 2.0 [1.0-3.9] and OR2 = 7.6 [2.8-20.5]). CONCLUSIONS The present study demonstrates the interest of this method based on individual drug trajectories for the evaluation of outcomes in pharmaco-epidemiological studies and more specifically during pregnancy. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Hurault-Delarue
- Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique, UMR INSERM 1027, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Faculté de Médecine, Université Toulouse III, Toulouse, France
| | - Cécile Chouquet
- Institut de Mathématiques de Toulouse, Laboratoire de Statistique et Probabilités, CNRS (UMR 5219), Paul Sabatier Université, Toulouse, France
| | - Nicolas Savy
- Institut de Mathématiques de Toulouse, Laboratoire de Statistique et Probabilités, CNRS (UMR 5219), Paul Sabatier Université, Toulouse, France
| | - Isabelle Lacroix
- Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique, UMR INSERM 1027, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Faculté de Médecine, Université Toulouse III, Toulouse, France
| | - Anna-Belle Beau
- Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique, UMR INSERM 1027, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Faculté de Médecine, Université Toulouse III, Toulouse, France
| | - Jean-Louis Montastruc
- Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique, UMR INSERM 1027, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Faculté de Médecine, Université Toulouse III, Toulouse, France
| | - Christine Damase-Michel
- Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique, UMR INSERM 1027, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Faculté de Médecine, Université Toulouse III, Toulouse, France
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Yeung M, Dickson CT, Treit D. Intrahippocampal infusion of the Ih blocker ZD7288 slows evoked theta rhythm and produces anxiolytic-like effects in the elevated plus maze. Hippocampus 2012; 23:278-86. [PMID: 23280856 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.22086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Hippocampal theta rhythm has been associated with a number of behavioral processes, including learning and memory, spatial behavior, sensorimotor integration and affective responses. Suppression of hippocampal theta frequency has been shown to be a reliable neurophysiological signature of anxiolytic drug action in tests using known anxiolytic drugs (i.e., correlational evidence), but only one study to date (Yeung et al. (2012) Neuropharmacology 62:155-160) has shown that a drug with no known effect on either hippocampal theta or anxiety can in fact separately suppress hippocampal theta and anxiety in behavioral tests (i.e., prima facie evidence). Here, we attempt a further critical test of the hippocampal theta model by performing intrahippocampal administrations of the Ih blocker ZD7288, which is known to disrupt theta frequency subthreshold oscillations and resonance at the membrane level but is not known to have anxiolytic action. Intrahippocampal microinfusions of ZD7288 at high (15 µg), but not low (1 µg) doses slowed brainstem-evoked hippocampal theta responses in the urethane anesthetized rat, and more importantly, promoted anxiolytic action in freely behaving rats in the elevated plus maze. Taken together with our previous demonstration, these data provide converging, prima facie evidence of the validity of the theta suppression model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Yeung
- Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, P-217 Biological, Sciences Building, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9
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Cryan JF, Sweeney FF. The age of anxiety: role of animal models of anxiolytic action in drug discovery. Br J Pharmacol 2011; 164:1129-61. [PMID: 21545412 PMCID: PMC3229755 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01362.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Revised: 02/24/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Anxiety disorders are common, serious and a growing health problem worldwide. However, the causative factors, aetiology and underlying mechanisms of anxiety disorders, as for most psychiatric disorders, remain relatively poorly understood. Animal models are an important aid in giving insight into the aetiology, neurobiology and, ultimately, the therapy of human anxiety disorders. The approach, however, is challenged with a number of complexities. In particular, the heterogeneous nature of anxiety disorders in humans coupled with the associated multifaceted and descriptive diagnostic criteria, creates challenges in both animal modelling and in clinical research. In this paper, we describe some of the more widely used approaches for assessing the anxiolytic activity of known and potential therapeutic agents. These include ethological, conflict-based, hyponeophagia, vocalization-based, physiological and cognitive-based paradigms. Developments in the characterization of translational models are also summarized, as are the challenges facing researchers in their drug discovery efforts in developing new anxiolytic drugs, not least the ever-shifting clinical conceptualization of anxiety disorders. In conclusion, to date, although animal models of anxiety have relatively good validity, anxiolytic drugs with novel mechanisms have been slow to emerge. It is clear that a better alignment of the interactions between basic and clinical scientists is needed if this is to change.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F Cryan
- Neuropharmacology Research Group, School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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Ballaz S, Barber A, Fortuño A, Del Río J, Martin-Martínez M, Gómez-Monterrey I, Herranz R, González-Muñiz R, García-López MT. Pharmacological evaluation of IQM-95,333, a highly selective CCKA receptor antagonist with anxiolytic-like activity in animal models. Br J Pharmacol 1997; 121:759-67. [PMID: 9208145 PMCID: PMC1564744 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0701186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
1. The pyridopyrimidine derivative IQM-95,333 ((4aS,5R)-2-benzyl-5-[N alpha-tert-butoxicarbonyl)L-tryptophyl] amino-1,3dioxoperhydropyrido[1,2-c]pyrimidine), a new non-peptide antagonist of cholecystokinin type A (CCKA) receptors, has been evaluated in vitro and in vivo in comparison with typical CCKA and CCKB receptor antagonists, such as devazepide, lorglumide, L-365,260 and PD-135,158. 2. IQM-95,333 displaced [3H]-CCK-8S binding to CCKA receptors from rat pancreas with a high potency in the nanomolar range. Conversely, the affinity of this new compound at brain CCKB receptors was negligible (IC50 > 10 microM). IQM-95,333 was a more selective CCKA receptor ligand than devazepide and other CCKA receptor antagonists. 3. Like devazepide, IQM-95,333 was a more potent antagonist of CCK-8S- than of CCK-4-induced contraction of the longitudinal muscle from guinea-pig ileum, suggesting selective antagonism at CCKA receptors. 4. IQM-95,333 and devazepide were also potent inhibitors of CCK-8S-stimulated amylase release from isolated pancreatic acini, a CCKA receptor-mediated effect. The drug concentrations required (IC50s around 20 nM) were higher than in binding studies to pancreas homogenates. 5. Low doses (50-100 micrograms kg-1, i.p.) of IQM-95,333 and devazepide, without any intrinsic effect on food intake or locomotion, blocked the hypophagia and the hypolocomotion induced by systemic administration of CCK-8S, two effects associated with stimulation of peripheral CCKA receptors. 6. IQM-95,333 showed an anxiolytic-like profile in the light/dark exploration test in mice over a wide dose range (10-5,000 micrograms kg-1). Typical CCKA and CCKB antagonists, devazepide and L-365,260 respectively, were only effective within a more limited dose range. 7. In a classical conflict paradigm for the study of anxiolytic drugs, the punished-drinking test, IQM-95,333, devazepide and L-365,260 were effective within a narrow dose range. The dose-response curve for the three drugs was biphasic, suggesting that other mechanisms are operative at higher doses. 8. In conclusion, IQM-95,333 is a potent and selective CCKA receptor antagonist both in vitro and in vivo with an anxiolytic-like activity in two different animal models, which can only be attributed to blockade of this CCK receptor subtype.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ballaz
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
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