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Hu HH, Wang SQ, Shang HL, Lv HF, Chen BB, Gao SG, Chen XB. Roles and inhibitors of FAK in cancer: current advances and future directions. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1274209. [PMID: 38410129 PMCID: PMC10895298 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1274209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is a non-receptor tyrosine kinase that exhibits high expression in various tumors and is associated with a poor prognosis. FAK activation promotes tumor growth, invasion, metastasis, and angiogenesis via both kinase-dependent and kinase-independent pathways. Moreover, FAK is crucial for sustaining the tumor microenvironment. The inhibition of FAK impedes tumorigenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance in cancer. Therefore, developing targeted inhibitors against FAK presents a promising therapeutic strategy. To date, numerous FAK inhibitors, including IN10018, defactinib, GSK2256098, conteltinib, and APG-2449, have been developed, which have demonstrated positive anti-tumor effects in preclinical studies and are undergoing clinical trials for several types of tumors. Moreover, many novel FAK inhibitors are currently in preclinical studies to advance targeted therapy for tumors with aberrantly activated FAK. The benefits of FAK degraders, especially in terms of their scaffold function, are increasingly evident, holding promising potential for future clinical exploration and breakthroughs. This review aims to clarify FAK's role in cancer, offering a comprehensive overview of the current status and future prospects of FAK-targeted therapy and combination approaches. The goal is to provide valuable insights for advancing anti-cancer treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Hui Hu
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University and Henan Cancer Hospital, Henan Engineering Research Center of Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer and Zhengzhou Key Laboratory for Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Sai-Qi Wang
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University and Henan Cancer Hospital, Henan Engineering Research Center of Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer and Zhengzhou Key Laboratory for Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer, Zhengzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Hai-Li Shang
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University and Henan Cancer Hospital, Henan Engineering Research Center of Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer and Zhengzhou Key Laboratory for Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Hui-Fang Lv
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University and Henan Cancer Hospital, Henan Engineering Research Center of Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer and Zhengzhou Key Laboratory for Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Bei-Bei Chen
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University and Henan Cancer Hospital, Henan Engineering Research Center of Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer and Zhengzhou Key Laboratory for Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer, Zhengzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - She-Gan Gao
- Henan Key Laboratory of Microbiome and Esophageal Cancer Prevention and Treatment, Henan Key Laboratory of Cancer Epigenetics, Cancer Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Xiao-Bing Chen
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University and Henan Cancer Hospital, Henan Engineering Research Center of Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer and Zhengzhou Key Laboratory for Precision Therapy of Gastrointestinal Cancer, Zhengzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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Guo C, Li Q, Xiao J, Ma F, Xia X, Shi M. Identification of defactinib derivatives targeting focal adhesion kinase using ensemble docking, molecular dynamics simulations and binding free energy calculations. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2023; 41:8654-8670. [PMID: 36281703 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2022.2135601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/08/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) belongs to the nonreceptor tyrosine kinases, which selectively phosphorylate tyrosine residues on substrate proteins. FAK is associated with bladder, esophageal, gastric, neck, breast, ovarian and lung cancers. Thus, FAK has been considered as a potential target for tumor treatment. Currently, there are six adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-competitive FAK inhibitors tested in clinical trials but no approved inhibitors targeting FAK. Defactinib (VS-6063) is a second-generation FAK inhibitor with an IC50 of 0.6 nM. The binding model of VS-6063 with FAK may provide a reference model for developing new antitumor FAK-targeting drugs. In this study, the VS-6063/FAK binding model was constructed using ensemble docking and molecular dynamics simulations. Furthermore, the molecular mechanics/generalized Born (GB) surface area (MM/GBSA) method was employed to estimate the binding free energy between VS-6063 and FAK. The key residues involved in VS-6063/FAK binding were also determined using per-residue energy decomposition analysis. Based on the binding model, VS-6063 could be separated into seven regions to enhance its binding affinity with FAK. Meanwhile, 60 novel defactinib-based compounds were designed and verified using ensemble docking. Overall, the present study improves our understanding of the binding mechanism of human FAK with VS-6063 and provides new insights into future drug designs targeting FAK.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan Guo
- Clinical Medical College, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Qinxuan Li
- Clinical Medical College, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jiujia Xiao
- Clinical Medical College, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Feng Ma
- Clinical Medical College, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xun Xia
- Clinical Medical College, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Mingsong Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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Wang-Gillam A, Lim KH, McWilliams R, Suresh R, Lockhart AC, Brown A, Breden M, Belle JI, Herndon J, Bogner SJ, Pedersen K, Tan B, Boice N, Acharya A, Abdiannia M, Gao F, Yoon HH, Zhu M, Trikalinos NA, Ratner L, Aranha O, Hawkins WG, Herzog BH, DeNardo DG. Defactinib, Pembrolizumab, and Gemcitabine in Patients with Advanced Treatment Refractory Pancreatic Cancer: A Phase I Dose Escalation and Expansion Study. Clin Cancer Res 2022; 28:5254-5262. [PMID: 36228156 PMCID: PMC9772237 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-22-0308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Targeting focal adhesion kinase (FAK) renders checkpoint immunotherapy effective in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) mouse model. Defactinib is a highly potent oral FAK inhibitor that has a tolerable safety profile. PATIENTS AND METHODS We conducted a multicenter, open-label, phase I study with dose escalation and expansion phases. In dose escalation, patients with refractory solid tumors were treated at five escalating dose levels of defactinib and gemcitabine to identify a recommended phase II dose (RP2D). In expansion phase, patients with metastatic PDAC who progressed on frontline treatment (refractory cohort) or had stable disease (SD) after at least 4 months of standard gemcitabine/nab-paclitaxel (maintenance cohort) were treated at RP2D. Pre- and posttreatment tumor biopsies were performed to evaluate tumor immunity. RESULTS The triple drug combination was well-tolerated, with no dose-limiting toxicities. Among 20 treated patients with refractory PDAC, the disease control rate (DCR) was 80%, with one partial response (PR) and 15 SDs, and the median progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) were 3.6 and 7.8 months, respectively. Among 10 evaluable patients in the maintenance cohort, DCR was 70% with one PR and six SDs. Three patients with SD came off study due to treatment- or disease-related complications. The median PFS and OS on study treatment were 5.0 and 8.3 months, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The combination of defactinib, pembrolizumab, and gemcitabine was well-tolerated and safe, had promising preliminary efficacy, and showed biomarker activity in infiltrative T lymphocytes. Efficacy of this strategy may require incorporation of more potent chemotherapy in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Wang-Gillam
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
- Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Kian-Huat Lim
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
- Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Robert McWilliams
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester MN 55905, USA
| | - Rama Suresh
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Albert C. Lockhart
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Amberly Brown
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Marcus Breden
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jad I. Belle
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - John Herndon
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Savannah J. Bogner
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Katrina Pedersen
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Benjamin Tan
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Nicholas Boice
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Abhi Acharya
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Mina Abdiannia
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Feng Gao
- Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Harry H. Yoon
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester MN 55905, USA
| | - Mojun Zhu
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester MN 55905, USA
| | - Nikolaos A. Trikalinos
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Lee Ratner
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Olivia Aranha
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - William G. Hawkins
- Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Brett H. Herzog
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - David G. DeNardo
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
- Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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Cuellar-Vite L, Weber-Bonk KL, Abdul-Karim FW, Booth CN, Keri RA. Focal Adhesion Kinase Provides a Collateral Vulnerability That Can Be Leveraged to Improve mTORC1 Inhibitor Efficacy. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:3374. [PMID: 35884439 PMCID: PMC9323520 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14143374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 pathway is a major therapeutic target for many cancers, particularly breast cancer. Everolimus is an mTORC1 inhibitor used in metastatic estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) and epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative (HER2-) breast cancer. However, mTORC1 inhibitors have limited efficacy in other breast cancer subtypes. We sought to discover collateral sensitivities to mTORC1 inhibition that could be exploited to improve therapeutic response. Using a mouse model of breast cancer that is intrinsically resistant to mTORC1 inhibition, we found that rapamycin alters the expression of numerous extracellular matrix genes, suggesting a potential role for integrins/FAK in controlling mTORC1-inhibitor efficacy. FAK activation was also inversely correlated with rapamycin response in breast cancer cell lines. Supporting its potential utility in patients, FAK activation was observed in >50% of human breast cancers. While blocking FAK in mouse models of breast cancer that are highly responsive to rapamycin had no impact on tumor growth, FAK inhibition sensitized rapamycin-resistant tumors to mTORC1 inhibition. These data reveal an innate dependency on FAK when mTORC1 signaling is lost in tumors that are resistant to mTORC1 inhibitors. They also suggest a precision medicine approach to improving mTORC1 inhibitor efficacy in resistant cancers by suppressing FAK signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Cuellar-Vite
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA;
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA;
| | - Kristen L. Weber-Bonk
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA;
| | - Fadi W. Abdul-Karim
- Anatomic Pathology, Pathology & Laboratory Medicine Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (F.W.A.-K.); (C.N.B.)
| | - Christine N. Booth
- Anatomic Pathology, Pathology & Laboratory Medicine Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (F.W.A.-K.); (C.N.B.)
| | - Ruth A. Keri
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA;
- Department of General Medical Sciences-Oncology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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Lin HM, Lee BY, Castillo L, Spielman C, Grogan J, Yeung NK, Kench JG, Stricker PD, Haynes AM, Centenera MM, Butler LM, Shreeve SM, Horvath LG, Daly RJ. Effect of FAK inhibitor VS-6063 ( defactinib) on docetaxel efficacy in prostate cancer. Prostate 2018; 78:308-317. [PMID: 29314097 DOI: 10.1002/pros.23476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Docetaxel, the standard chemotherapy for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) also enhances the survival of patients with metastatic castration-sensitive prostate cancer (CSPC) when combined with androgen-deprivation therapy. Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK) activation is a mediator of docetaxel resistance in prostate cancer cells. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the second generation FAK inhibitor VS-6063 on docetaxel efficacy in pre-clinical CRPC and CSPC models. METHODS Docetaxel-resistant CRPC cells, mice with PC3 xenografts, and ex vivo cultures of patient-derived primary prostate tumors were treated with VS-6063 and/or docetaxel, or vehicle control. Cell counting, immunoblotting, and immunohistochemistry techniques were used to evaluate the treatment effects. RESULTS Docetaxel and VS-6063 co-treatment caused a greater decrease in the viability of docetaxel-resistant CRPC cells, and a greater inhibition in PC3 xenograft growth compared to either monotherapy. FAK expression in human primary prostate cancer was positively associated with advanced tumor stage. Patient-derived prostate tumor explants cultured with both docetaxel and VS-6063 displayed a higher percentage of apoptosis in cancer cells, than monotherapy treatment. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that co-administration of the FAK inhibitor, VS-6063, with docetaxel represents a potential therapeutic strategy to overcome docetaxel resistance in prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Ming Lin
- Cancer Division, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre/Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- St Vincent's Clinical School, The University of New South Wales, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Brian Y Lee
- Cancer Division, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre/Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Lesley Castillo
- Cancer Division, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre/Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Calan Spielman
- Cancer Division, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre/Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Judith Grogan
- Cancer Division, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre/Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Nicole K Yeung
- Cancer Division, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre/Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - James G Kench
- Cancer Division, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre/Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre-NSW, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Phillip D Stricker
- Cancer Division, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre/Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- St Vincent's Clinical School, The University of New South Wales, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre-NSW, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- St Vincent's Prostate Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Anne-Maree Haynes
- Cancer Division, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre/Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre-NSW, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Margaret M Centenera
- School of Medicine and Freemasons Foundation Centre for Men's Health, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
- South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Lisa M Butler
- School of Medicine and Freemasons Foundation Centre for Men's Health, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
- South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - S Martin Shreeve
- Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson and Johnson, San Diego, California
| | - Lisa G Horvath
- Cancer Division, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre/Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre-NSW, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Medical Oncology, Chris O'Brien Lifehouse, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Roger J Daly
- Signalling Network Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Cancer Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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Blum W, Pecze L, Felley-Bosco E, Wu L, de Perrot M, Schwaller B. Stem Cell Factor-Based Identification and Functional Properties of In Vitro-Selected Subpopulations of Malignant Mesothelioma Cells. Stem Cell Reports 2017; 8:1005-1017. [PMID: 28285878 PMCID: PMC5390099 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2017.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Malignant mesothelioma (MM) is an aggressive neoplasm characterized by a poor patient survival rate, because of rapid tumor recurrence following first-line therapy. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are assumed to be responsible for initiating tumorigenesis and driving relapse after therapeutic interventions. CSC-enriched MM cell subpopulations were identified by an OCT4/SOX2 reporter approach and were characterized by (1) increased resistance to cisplatin, (2) increased sensitivity toward the FAK inhibitor VS-6063 in vitro, and (3) a higher tumor-initiating capacity in vivo in orthotopic xenograft and allograft mouse models. Overexpression of NF2 (neurofibromatosis 2, merlin), a tumor suppressor often mutated or lost in MM, did not affect proliferation and viability of CSC-enriched MM populations but robustly decreased the viability of reporter-negative cells. In contrast, downregulation of calretinin strongly decreased proliferation and viability of both populations. In summary, we have enriched and characterized a small MM cell subpopulation that bears the expected CSC characteristics. High SOX2 and OCT4 levels reveal a subpopulation of MM cells with CSC properties EGFP + MM cells are more resistant to cis-Pt, but more sensitive toward VS-6063 EGFP + MM cells show a higher tumor-initiating capacity in xeno- and allograft models Calretinin downregulation, but not NF2 expression affects EGFP + MM cell viability
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Blum
- Unit of Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Route Albert-Gockel 1, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
| | - László Pecze
- Unit of Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Route Albert-Gockel 1, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Emanuela Felley-Bosco
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Lungen- und Thoraxonkologie Zentrum, University Hospital Zürich, Sternwartstrasse 14, 8091 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Licun Wu
- Latner Thoracic Surgery Research Laboratories, Division of Thoracic Surgery, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 2C4, Canada
| | - Marc de Perrot
- Latner Thoracic Surgery Research Laboratories, Division of Thoracic Surgery, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 2C4, Canada
| | - Beat Schwaller
- Unit of Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Route Albert-Gockel 1, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
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