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Grijalva C, Hale D, Wu L, Toosizadeh N, Laksari K. Hyper-acute effects of sub-concussive soccer headers on brain function and hemodynamics. Front Hum Neurosci 2023; 17:1191284. [PMID: 37780960 PMCID: PMC10538631 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1191284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Sub-concussive head impacts in soccer are drawing increasing research attention regarding their acute and long-term effects as players may experience thousands of headers in a single season. During these impacts, the head experiences rapid acceleration similar to what occurs during a concussion, but without the clinical implications. The physical mechanism and response to repetitive impacts are not completely understood. The objective of this work was to examine the immediate functional outcomes of sub-concussive level impacts from soccer heading in a natural, non-laboratory environment. Methods Twenty university level soccer athletes were instrumented with sensor-mounted bite bars to record impacts from 10 consecutive soccer headers. Pre- and post-header measurements were collected to determine hyper-acute changes, i.e., within minutes after exposure. This included measuring blood flow velocity using transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasound, oxyhemoglobin concentration using functional near infrared spectroscopy imaging (fNIRS), and upper extremity dual-task (UEF) neurocognitive testing. Results On average, the athletes experienced 30.7 ± 8.9 g peak linear acceleration and 7.2 ± 3.1 rad/s peak angular velocity, respectively. Results from fNIRS measurements showed an increase in the brain oxygenation for the left prefrontal cortex (PC) (p = 0.002), and the left motor cortex (MC) (p = 0.007) following the soccer headers. Additional analysis of the fNIRS time series demonstrates increased sample entropy of the signal after the headers in the right PC (p = 0.02), right MC (p = 0.004), and left MC (p = 0.04). Discussion These combined results reveal some variations in brain oxygenation immediately detected after repetitive headers. Significant changes in balance and neurocognitive function were not observed in this study, indicating a mild level of head impacts. This is the first study to observe hemodynamic changes immediately after sub-concussive impacts using non-invasive portable imaging technology. In combination with head kinematic measurements, this information can give new insights and a framework for immediate monitoring of sub-concussive impacts on the head.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carissa Grijalva
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Dallin Hale
- Department of Physiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Lyndia Wu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Nima Toosizadeh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
- Arizona Center for Aging, Department of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Kaveh Laksari
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
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Powers S, Han X, Martinez J, Dufford AJ, Metz TD, Yeh T, Kim P. Cannabis use during pregnancy and hemodynamic responses to infant cues in pregnancy: an exploratory study. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1180947. [PMID: 37743996 PMCID: PMC10512021 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1180947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Cannabis is one of the most commonly used substances during pregnancy and has the potential to negatively impact parent-infant relationships. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) response to infant cues during pregnancy has been associated with subsequent positive parenting behaviors. However, PFC activation is altered in individuals who use cannabis. As the potency of cannabis has changed over the years, little is known about the specific role of cannabis use on gestational parent brain responses to infant cues. Materials and methods Using functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) in the second trimester of pregnancy, we measured hemodynamic responses to an infant cry task and an infant faces task among individuals who were using cannabis (N = 14) and compared them with those who were not using cannabis (N = 45). For the infant cry task, pregnant individuals listened to cry sounds and matched white noise. For the infant faces task, they viewed happy, sad, and neutral faces. Results There was no significant difference between the two groups after adjusting for multiple comparisons. Without adjusting for multiple comparisons, we found preliminary evidence for the differences in the dorsomedial PFC associated with heightened response to infant cry among individuals who use cannabis. The groups were also different in the dorsolateral PFC associated with decreased response to infant sad faces among individuals who use cannabis. Discussion Our preliminary data suggests that cannabis use during pregnancy was associated with brain activation in the regions involved in the emotional regulation and information processes. However, the results did not survive after adjustment for multiple comparisons, thus future research with larger sample sizes is needed to confirm potential differences in brain function among cannabis-using pregnant individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon Powers
- University of Denver, Psychology, Denver, CO, United States
| | - Xu Han
- University of Colorado, Computer Science, Boulder, CO, United States
| | | | - Alexander John Dufford
- Department of Medical Social Sciences and Institute for Innovations in Developmental Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Torri D. Metz
- University of Utah Health, Obstetrics/Gynecology, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Tom Yeh
- University of Colorado, Computer Science, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Pilyoung Kim
- University of Denver, Psychology, Denver, CO, United States
- Department of Psychology, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea
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Karumattu Manattu A, Borrell JA, Copeland C, Fraser K, Zuniga JM. Motor cortical functional connectivity changes due to short-term immobilization of upper limb: an fNIRS case report. Front Rehabil Sci 2023; 4:1156940. [PMID: 37266515 PMCID: PMC10229777 DOI: 10.3389/fresc.2023.1156940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Introduction A short-term immobilization of one hand affects musculoskeletal functions, and the associated brain network adapts to the alterations happening to the body due to injuries. It was hypothesized that the injury-associated temporary disuse of the upper limb would alter the functional interactions of the motor cortical processes and will produce long-term changes throughout the immobilization and post-immobilization period. Methods The case participant (male, 12 years old, right arm immobilized for clavicle fracture) was scanned using optical imaging technology of fNIRS over immobilization and post-immobilization. Pre-task data was collected for 3 min for RSFC analysis, processed, and analyzed using the Brain AnalyzIR toolbox. Connectivity was measured using Pearson correlation coefficients (R) from NIRS Toolbox's connectivity module. Results The non-affected hand task presented an increased ipsilateral response during the immobilization period, which then decreased over the follow-up visits. The right-hand task showed a bilateral activation pattern following immobilization, but the contralateral activation pattern was restored during the 1-year follow-up visit. Significant differences in the average connection strength over the study period were observed. The average Connection strength decreased from the third week of immobilization and continued to be lower than the baseline value. Global network efficiency decreased in weeks two and three, while the network settled into a higher efficient state during the follow-up periods after post-immobilization. Discussion Short-term immobilization of the upper limb is shown to have cortical changes in terms of activations of brain regions as well as connectivity. The short-term dis-use of the upper limb has shifted the unilateral activation pattern to the bilateral coactivation of the motor cortex from both hemispheres. Resting-state data reveals a disruption in the motor cortical network during the immobilization phase, and the network is reorganized into an efficient network over 1 year after the injury. Understanding such cortical reorganization could be informative for studying the recovery from neurological disorders affecting motor control in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jordan A. Borrell
- Department of Biomechanics, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, United States
- Center for Biomedical Rehabilitation and Manufacturing, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Christopher Copeland
- Department of Biomechanics, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Kaitlin Fraser
- Department of Biomechanics, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Jorge M. Zuniga
- Department of Biomechanics, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, United States
- Center for Biomedical Rehabilitation and Manufacturing, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, United States
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Jotwani ML, Wu Z, Lunde CE, Sieberg CB. The missing mechanistic link: Improving behavioral treatment efficacy for pediatric chronic pain. Front Pain Res (Lausanne) 2022; 3:1022699. [PMID: 36313218 PMCID: PMC9614027 DOI: 10.3389/fpain.2022.1022699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Pediatric chronic pain is a significant global issue, with biopsychosocial factors contributing to the complexity of the condition. Studies have explored behavioral treatments for pediatric chronic pain, but these treatments have mixed efficacy for improving functional and psychological outcomes. Furthermore, the literature lacks an understanding of the biobehavioral mechanisms contributing to pediatric chronic pain treatment response. In this mini review, we focus on how neuroimaging has been used to identify biobehavioral mechanisms of different conditions and how this modality can be used in mechanistic clinical trials to identify markers of treatment response for pediatric chronic pain. We propose that mechanistic clinical trials, utilizing neuroimaging, are warranted to investigate how to optimize the efficacy of behavioral treatments for pediatric chronic pain patients across pain types and ages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya L. Jotwani
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Biobehavioral Pain Innovations Lab, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States,Pain and Affective Neuroscience Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care, Pain Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Ziyan Wu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Biobehavioral Pain Innovations Lab, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States,Pain and Affective Neuroscience Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care, Pain Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Claire E. Lunde
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Biobehavioral Pain Innovations Lab, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States,Pain and Affective Neuroscience Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care, Pain Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States,Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproductive Health, Medical Sciences Division, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Christine B. Sieberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Biobehavioral Pain Innovations Lab, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States,Pain and Affective Neuroscience Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care, Pain Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States,Correspondence: Christine B. Sieberg
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Ozana N, Lue N, Renna M, Robinson MB, Martin A, Zavriyev AI, Carr B, Mazumder D, Blackwell MH, Franceschini MA, Carp SA. Functional Time Domain Diffuse Correlation Spectroscopy. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:932119. [PMID: 35979338 PMCID: PMC9377452 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.932119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Time-domain diffuse correlation spectroscopy (TD-DCS) offers a novel approach to high-spatial resolution functional brain imaging based on the direct quantification of cerebral blood flow (CBF) changes in response to neural activity. However, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) offered by previous TD-DCS instruments remains a challenge to achieving the high temporal resolution needed to resolve perfusion changes during functional measurements. Here we present a next-generation optimized functional TD-DCS system that combines a custom 1,064 nm pulse-shaped, quasi transform-limited, amplified laser source with a high-resolution time-tagging system and superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs). System characterization and optimization was conducted on homogenous and two-layer intralipid phantoms before performing functional CBF measurements in six human subjects. By acquiring CBF signals at over 5 Hz for a late gate start time of the temporal point spread function (TPSF) at 15 mm source-detector separation, we demonstrate for the first time the measurement of blood flow responses to breath-holding and functional tasks using TD-DCS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisan Ozana
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States,*Correspondence: Nisan Ozana, ,
| | - Niyom Lue
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology Lincoln Laboratory, Lexington, MA, United States
| | - Marco Renna
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Mitchell B. Robinson
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States,Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Health Sciences and Technology Program, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Alyssa Martin
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Alexander I. Zavriyev
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Bryce Carr
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Dibbyan Mazumder
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Megan H. Blackwell
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology Lincoln Laboratory, Lexington, MA, United States
| | - Maria A. Franceschini
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Stefan A. Carp
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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Crum J, Ronca F, Herbert G, Funk S, Carmona E, Hakim U, Jones I, Hamer M, Hirsch J, Hamilton A, Tachtsidis I, Burgess PW. Decreased Exercise-Induced Changes in Prefrontal Cortex Hemodynamics Are Associated With Depressive Symptoms. Front Neurogenom 2022; 3:806485. [PMID: 38235451 PMCID: PMC10790946 DOI: 10.3389/fnrgo.2022.806485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
People with a depressed mood tend to perform poorly on executive function tasks, which require much of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), an area of the brain which has also been shown to be hypo-active in this population. Recent research has suggested that these aspects of cognition might be improved through physical activity and cognitive training. However, whether the acute effects of exercise on PFC activation during executive function tasks vary with depressive symptoms remains unclear. To investigate these effects, 106 participants were given a cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) and were administered a set of executive function tests directly before and after the CPET assessment. The composite effects of exercise on the PFC (all experimental blocks) showed bilateral activation changes in dorsolateral (BA46/9) and ventrolateral (BA44/45) PFC, with the greatest changes occurring in rostral PFC (BA10). The effects observed in right ventrolateral PFC varied depending on level of depressive symptoms (13% variance explained); the changes in activation were less for higher levels. There was also a positive relationship between CPET scores (VO2peak) and right rostral PFC, in that greater activation changes in right BA10 were predictive of higher levels of aerobic fitness (9% variance explained). Since acute exercise ipsilaterally affected this PFC subregion and the inferior frontal gyrus during executive function tasks, this suggests physical activity might benefit the executive functions these subregions support. And because physical fitness and depressive symptoms explained some degree of cerebral upregulation to these subregions, physical activity might more specifically facilitate the engagement of executive functions that are typically associated with hypoactivation in depressed populations. Future research might investigate this possibility in clinical populations, particularly the neural effects of physical activity used in combination with mental health interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Crum
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Flaminia Ronca
- Institute of Sport Exercise and Health, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - George Herbert
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sabina Funk
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Estela Carmona
- Institute of Sport Exercise and Health, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Uzair Hakim
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Isla Jones
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Hamer
- Institute of Sport Exercise and Health, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Joy Hirsch
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Comparative Medicine, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Antonia Hamilton
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ilias Tachtsidis
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Paul W. Burgess
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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Siddiqui MF, Pinti P, Lloyd-Fox S, Jones EJH, Brigadoi S, Collins-Jones L, Tachtsidis I, Johnson MH, Elwell CE. Regional Haemodynamic and Metabolic Coupling in Infants. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 15:780076. [PMID: 35185494 PMCID: PMC8854371 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.780076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolic pathways underlying brain function remain largely unexplored during neurodevelopment, predominantly due to the lack of feasible techniques for use with awake infants. Broadband near-infrared spectroscopy (bNIRS) provides the opportunity to explore the relationship between cerebral energy metabolism and blood oxygenation/haemodynamics through the measurement of changes in the oxidation state of mitochondrial respiratory chain enzyme cytochrome-c-oxidase (ΔoxCCO) alongside haemodynamic changes. We used a bNIRS system to measure ΔoxCCO and haemodynamics during functional activation in a group of 42 typically developing infants aged between 4 and 7 months. bNIRS measurements were made over the right hemisphere over temporal, parietal and central cortical regions, in response to social and non-social visual and auditory stimuli. Both ΔoxCCO and Δ[HbO2] displayed larger activation for the social condition in comparison to the non-social condition. Integration of haemodynamic and metabolic signals revealed networks of stimulus-selective cortical regions that were not apparent from analysis of the individual bNIRS signals. These results provide the first spatially resolved measures of cerebral metabolic activity alongside haemodynamics during functional activation in infants. Measuring synchronised changes in metabolism and haemodynamics have the potential for uncovering the development of cortical specialisation in early infancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maheen F. Siddiqui
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck College, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Paola Pinti
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck College, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Lloyd-Fox
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Emily J. H. Jones
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck College, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sabrina Brigadoi
- Department of Development and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
- Department of Information Engineering, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Liam Collins-Jones
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ilias Tachtsidis
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mark H. Johnson
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Clare E. Elwell
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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Chang F, Li H, Li N, Zhang S, Liu C, Zhang Q, Cai W. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy as a potential objective evaluation technique in neurocognitive disorders after traumatic brain injury. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:903756. [PMID: 35935423 PMCID: PMC9352882 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.903756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Most patients with neurocognitive disorders after traumatic brain injury (TBI) show executive dysfunction, in which the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) plays an important role. However, less objective evaluation technique could be used to assess the executive dysfunction in these patients. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), which is a non-invasive technique, has been widely used in the study of psychiatric disorders, cognitive dysfunction, etc. The present study aimed to explore whether fNIRS could be a technique to assess the damage degree of executive function in patients with neurocognitive disorders after TBI by using the Stroop and N-back tasks in PFC areas. We enrolled 37 patients with neurocognitive disorders after TBI and 60 healthy controls. A 22-channel fNIRS device was used to record HbO during Stroop, 1-back and 2-back tasks. The results showed that patients made significantly more errors and had longer response times than healthy controls. There were statistically significant differences in HbO level variation in bilateral frontopolar, bilateral inferior frontal gyrus and left middle temporal gyrus during Stroop color word consistency tasks and in left frontopolar during Stroop color word inconsistency tasks. During 2-back tasks, there were also statistically significant differences in HbO level variation in bilateral frontopolar, bilateral inferior frontal gyrus, bilateral dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex. According to brain activation maps, the patients exhibited lower but more widespread activation during the 2-back and Stroop color word consistency tasks. The fNIRS could identify executive dysfunction in patients with neurocognitive disorders after TBI by detecting HbO levels, which suggested that fNIRS could be a potential objective evaluation technique in neurocognitive disorders after TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Chang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Key Lab of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China.,Sichuan Provincial Center for Mental Health, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu, China
| | - Haozhe Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Key Lab of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Ningning Li
- Hongkou Mental Health Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Shengyu Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Key Lab of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Chao Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Key Lab of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Qinting Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Key Lab of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Weixiong Cai
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Key Lab of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
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Tyagi O, Mehta RK. A Methodological Framework to Capture Neuromuscular Fatigue Mechanisms Under Stress. Front Neurogenom 2021; 2:779069. [PMID: 38235237 PMCID: PMC10790877 DOI: 10.3389/fnrgo.2021.779069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
Neuromuscular fatigue is exacerbated under stress and is characterized by shorter endurance time, greater perceived effort, lower force steadiness, and higher electromyographic activity. However, the underlying mechanisms of fatigue under stress are not well-understood. This review investigated existing methods of identifying central mechanisms of neuromuscular fatigue and the potential mechanisms of the influence of stress on neuromuscular fatigue. We found that the influence of stress on the activity of the prefrontal cortex, which are also involved in exercise regulation, may contribute to exacerbated fatigue under stress. We also found that the traditional methods involve the synchronized use of transcranial magnetic stimulation, peripheral nerve stimulation, and electromyography to identify the contribution of supraspinal fatigue, through measures such as voluntary activation, motor evoked potential, and silent period. However, these popular techniques are unable to provide information about neural alterations upstream of the descending drive that may contribute to supraspinal fatigue development. To address this gap, we propose that functional brain imaging techniques, which provide insights on activation and information flow between brain regions, need to be combined with the traditional measures of measuring central fatigue to fully understand the mechanisms behind the influence of stress on fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ranjana K. Mehta
- Neuroergonomics Lab, Texas A&M University, Industrial and Systems Engineering, College Station, TX, United States
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Rahman TT, Polskaia N, St-Amant G, Salzman T, Vallejo DT, Lajoie Y, Fraser SA. An fNIRS Investigation of Discrete and Continuous Cognitive Demands During Dual-Task Walking in Young Adults. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:711054. [PMID: 34867235 PMCID: PMC8637836 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.711054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Dual-task studies have demonstrated that walking is attention-demanding for younger adults. However, numerous studies have attributed this to task type rather than the amount of required to accomplish the task. This study examined four tasks: two discrete (i.e., short intervals of attention) and two continuous (i.e., sustained attention) to determine whether greater attentional demands result in greater dual-task costs due to an overloaded processing capacity. Methods: Nineteen young adults (21.5 ± 3.6 years, 13 females) completed simple reaction time (SRT) and go/no-go (GNG) discrete cognitive tasks and n-back (NBK) and double number sequence (DNS) continuous cognitive tasks with or without self-paced walking. Prefrontal cerebral hemodynamics were measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and performance was measured using response time, accuracy, and gait speed. Results: Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed decreased accuracy with increasing cognitive demands (p = 0.001) and increased dual-task accuracy costs (p < 0.001). Response times were faster during the single compared to dual-tasks during the SRT (p = 0.005) and NBK (p = 0.004). DNS gait speed was also slower in the dual compared to single task (p < 0.001). Neural findings revealed marginally significant interactions between dual-task walking and walking alone in the DNS (p = 0.06) and dual -task walking compared to the NBK cognitive task alone (p = 0.05). Conclusion: Neural findings suggest a trend towards increased PFC activation during continuous tasks. Cognitive and motor measures revealed worse performance during the discrete compared to continuous tasks. Future studies should consider examining different attentional demands of motor tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tabassum Tahmina Rahman
- Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Science, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Nadia Polskaia
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Science, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Gabrielle St-Amant
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Science, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Talia Salzman
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Science, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Diana Tobón Vallejo
- Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department, Universidad de Medellín, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Yves Lajoie
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Science, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Sarah Anne Fraser
- Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Science, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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11
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Hou X, Xiao X, Gong Y, Li Z, Chen A, Zhu C. Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Neurofeedback Enhances Human Spatial Memory. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:681193. [PMID: 34658812 PMCID: PMC8511425 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.681193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spatial memory is an important cognitive function for human daily life and may present dysfunction or decline due to aging or clinical diseases. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy neurofeedback (fNIRS-NFB) is a promising neuromodulation technique with several special advantages that can be used to improve human cognitive functions by manipulating the neural activity of targeted brain regions or networks. In this pilot study, we intended to test the feasibility of fNIRS-NFB to enhance human spatial memory ability. The lateral parietal cortex, an accessible cortical region in the posterior medial hippocampal-cortical network that plays a crucial role in human spatial memory processing, was selected as the potential feedback target. A placebo-controlled fNIRS-NFB experiment was conducted to instruct individuals to regulate the neural activity in this region or an irrelevant control region. Experimental results showed that individuals learned to up-regulate the neural activity in the region of interest successfully. A significant increase in spatial memory performance was found after 8-session neurofeedback training in the experimental group but not in the control group. Furthermore, neurofeedback-induced neural activation increase correlated with spatial memory improvement. In summary, this study preliminarily demonstrated the feasibility of fNIRS-NFB to improve human spatial memory and has important implications for further applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,School of Education, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiang Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yilong Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Zheng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Center for Cognition and Neuroergonomics, Beijing Normal University at Zhuhai, Zhuhai, China.,Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Antao Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality of the Ministry of Education, Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chaozhe Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
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12
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Dolmans TC, Poel M, van ’t Klooster JWJR, Veldkamp BP. Perceived Mental Workload Classification Using Intermediate Fusion Multimodal Deep Learning. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 14:609096. [PMID: 33505259 PMCID: PMC7829255 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.609096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A lot of research has been done on the detection of mental workload (MWL) using various bio-signals. Recently, deep learning has allowed for novel methods and results. A plethora of measurement modalities have proven to be valuable in this task, yet studies currently often only use a single modality to classify MWL. The goal of this research was to classify perceived mental workload (PMWL) using a deep neural network (DNN) that flexibly makes use of multiple modalities, in order to allow for feature sharing between modalities. To achieve this goal, an experiment was conducted in which MWL was simulated with the help of verbal logic puzzles. The puzzles came in five levels of difficulty and were presented in a random order. Participants had 1 h to solve as many puzzles as they could. Between puzzles, they gave a difficulty rating between 1 and 7, seven being the highest difficulty. Galvanic skin response, photoplethysmograms, functional near-infrared spectrograms and eye movements were collected simultaneously using LabStreamingLayer (LSL). Marker information from the puzzles was also streamed on LSL. We designed and evaluated a novel intermediate fusion multimodal DNN for the classification of PMWL using the aforementioned four modalities. Two main criteria that guided the design and implementation of our DNN are modularity and generalisability. We were able to classify PMWL within-level accurate (0.985 levels) on a seven-level workload scale using the aforementioned modalities. The model architecture allows for easy addition and removal of modalities without major structural implications because of the modular nature of the design. Furthermore, we showed that our neural network performed better when using multiple modalities, as opposed to a single modality. The dataset and code used in this paper are openly available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tenzing C. Dolmans
- Data Management and Biometrics, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
- Behavioural, Management and Social Sciences Lab, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Mannes Poel
- Data Management and Biometrics, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
| | | | - Bernard P. Veldkamp
- Research Methodology, Measurement, and Data Analysis, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
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13
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Hashmi S, Vanderwert RE, Price HA, Gerson SA. Exploring the Benefits of Doll Play Through Neuroscience. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:560176. [PMID: 33132876 PMCID: PMC7560494 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.560176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It has long been hypothesized that pretend play is beneficial to social and cognitive development. However, there is little evidence regarding the neural regions that are active while children engage in pretend play. We examined the activation of prefrontal and posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) regions using near-infrared spectroscopy while 42 4- to 8-year-old children freely played with dolls or tablet games with a social partner or by themselves. Social play activated right prefrontal regions more than solo play. Children engaged the pSTS during solo doll play but not during solo tablet play, suggesting they were rehearsing social cognitive skills more with dolls. These findings suggest social play utilizes multiple neural regions and highlight how doll play can achieve similar patterns of activation, even when children play by themselves. Doll play may provide a unique opportunity for children to practice social interactions important for developing social-emotional skills, such as empathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salim Hashmi
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.,School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Ross E Vanderwert
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom.,School of Psychology, Cardiff University Centre for Human Developmental Science (CUCHDS), Cardiff, United Kingdom.,School of Psychology, Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Centre (CUBRIC), Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Hope A Price
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah A Gerson
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom.,School of Psychology, Cardiff University Centre for Human Developmental Science (CUCHDS), Cardiff, United Kingdom
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14
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Ujiie Y, Kanazawa S, Yamaguchi MK. The Other-Race-Effect on Audiovisual Speech Integration in Infants: A NIRS Study. Front Psychol 2020; 11:971. [PMID: 32499746 PMCID: PMC7243679 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have revealed perceptual narrowing for the own-race-face in face discrimination, but this phenomenon is poorly understood in face and voice integration. We focused on infants' brain responses to the McGurk effect to examine whether the other-race effect occurs in the activation patterns. In Experiment 1, we conducted fNIRS measurements to find the presence of a mapping of the McGurk effect in Japanese 8- to 9-month-old infants and to examine the difference between the activation patterns in response to own-race-face and other-race-face stimuli. We used two race-face conditions, own-race-face (East Asian) and other-race-face (Caucasian), each of which contained audiovisual-matched and McGurk-type stimuli. While the infants (N = 34) were observing each speech stimulus for each race, we measured cerebral hemoglobin concentrations in bilateral temporal brain regions. The results showed that in the own-race-face condition, audiovisual-matched stimuli induced the activation of the left temporal region, and the McGurk stimuli induced the activation of the bilateral temporal regions. No significant activations were found in the other-race-face condition. These results mean that the McGurk effect occurred only in the own-race-face condition. In Experiment 2, we used a familiarization/novelty preference procedure to confirm that the infants (N = 28) could perceive the McGurk effect in the own-race-face condition but not that of the other-race-face. The behavioral data supported the results of the fNIRS data, implying the presence of narrowing for the own-race face in the McGurk effect. These results suggest that narrowing of the McGurk effect may be involved in the development of relatively high-order processing, such as face-to-face communication with people surrounding the infant. We discuss the hypothesis that perceptual narrowing is a modality-general, pan-sensory process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Ujiie
- Graduate School of Psychology, Chukyo University, Aichi, Japan
- Research and Development Initiative, Chuo University, Tokyo, Japan
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - So Kanazawa
- Department of Psychology, Japan Women’s University, Kawasaki, Japan
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15
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McKendrick R, Harwood A. Cognitive Workload and Workload Transitions Elicit Curvilinear Hemodynamics During Spatial Working Memory. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:405. [PMID: 31824274 PMCID: PMC6880762 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Adaptive training and workload management have the potential to drastically change safety and productivity in high-risk fields-including, air-traffic control, missile defense, and nuclear power-plant operations. Quantifying and classifying cognitive load is important for optimal performance. Brain-based metrics have previously been associated with mental workload. Specifically, attenuation of prefrontal activity has been linked to cognitive overload, a cognitive load state associated with degraded task performance. We hypothesized that a similar nonlinearity would be observed for cognitive underload. When underload and overload effects are combined, they should form a cubic function in lateral prefrontal cortex as a function of working memory load. The first of two studies assessed the relationships between spatial working memory load with subjective, behavioral and hemodynamic measures. A cubic function was observed in left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (LDLPFC; Brodmann's Area 46) relating working memory load to changes in oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO). The second, two-part study tested the effects of workload transitions to different cognitive load states. Part-one replicated the effects observed in study one and identified transition points for individual performers. Part-two assessed the effects of transitioning to different cognitive load states. Cognitive load state transitions caused a deviation between behavioral measures and induced a significant change in the cubic function relating LDLPFC HbO and working memory load. From these observations, we present a hypothesis associating workload transitions with the disruption of cognitive process integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan McKendrick
- Northrop Grumman - Mission Systems, Falls Church, VA, United States.,Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
| | - Amanda Harwood
- Northrop Grumman - Mission Systems, Falls Church, VA, United States.,Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
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16
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Yuan Z, Zhang X, Ding M. Editorial: Techniques Advances and Clinical Applications in Fused EEG-fNIRS. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:408. [PMID: 31824275 PMCID: PMC6883421 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Yuan
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China.,Cenre for Cogntive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- National Laboratory of Pattern Recognition, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Mingzhou Ding
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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17
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Karran AJ, Demazure T, Leger PM, Labonte-LeMoyne E, Senecal S, Fredette M, Babin G. Toward a Hybrid Passive BCI for the Modulation of Sustained Attention Using EEG and fNIRS. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:393. [PMID: 31780914 PMCID: PMC6851201 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We report results of a study that utilizes a BCI to drive an interactive interface countermeasure that allows users to self-regulate sustained attention while performing an ecologically valid, long-duration business logistics task. An engagement index derived from EEG signals was used to drive the BCI while fNIRS measured hemodynamic activity for the duration of the task. Participants (n = 30) were split into three groups (1) no countermeasures (NOCM), (2) continuous countermeasures (CCM), and (3) event synchronized, level-dependent countermeasures (ECM). We hypothesized that the ability to self-regulate sustained attention through a neurofeedback mechanism would result in greater task engagement, decreased error rate and improved task performance. Data were analyzed by wavelet coherence analysis, statistical analysis, performance metrics and self-assessed cognitive workload via RAW-TLX. We found that when the BCI was used to deliver continuous interface countermeasures (CCM), task performance was moderately enhanced in terms of total 14,785 (σ = 423) and estimated missed sales 7.46% (σ = 1.76) when compared to the NOCM 14,529 (σ = 510), 9.79% (σ = 2.75), and the ECM 14,180 (σ = 875), 9.62% (σ = 4.91) groups. An "actions per minute" (APM) metric was used to determine interface interaction activity which showed that overall the CCM and ECM groups had a higher APM of 3.460 (SE = 0.140) and 3.317 (SE = 0.139) respectively when compared with the NOCM group 2.65 (SE = 0.097). Statistical analysis showed a significant difference between ECM - NOCM and CCM - NOCM (p < 0.001) groups, but no significant difference between the ECM - CCM groups. Analysis of the RAW-TLX scores showed that the CCM group had lowest total score 7.27 (σ = 3.1) when compared with the ECM 9.7 (σ = 3.3) and NOCM 9.2 (σ = 3.4) groups. No statistical difference was found between the RAW-TLX or the subscales, except for self-perceived performance (p < 0.028) comparing the CCM and ECM groups. The results suggest that providing a means to self-regulate sustained attention has the potential to keep operators engaged over long periods, and moderately increase on-task performance while decreasing on-task error.
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18
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliet L King
- Department of Art Therapy, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States.,Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Girija Kaimal
- Department of Creative Arts Therapies, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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19
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Putze F, Mühl C, Lotte F, Fairclough S, Herff C. Editorial: Detection and Estimation of Working Memory States and Cognitive Functions Based on Neurophysiological Measures. Front Hum Neurosci 2018; 12:440. [PMID: 30425630 PMCID: PMC6218507 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Felix Putze
- Cognitive Systems Lab, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Christian Mühl
- Sleep and Human Factors Research, German Aerospace Center, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Cologne, Germany
| | - Fabien Lotte
- Inria / LaBRI (CNRS - Bordeaux INP - Univ. Bordeaux), Talence, France
| | - Stephen Fairclough
- School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Herff
- Cognitive Systems Lab, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany.,School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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