The Effects of Chronic Immunosuppressive Treatment on Morphological Changes in Cardiac Tissue and the Balance between Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) and Their Inhibitors in the Rat Heart

Using different three-drug immunosuppressive treatment regimens in a rat model, we aimed to determine the effects of long-term therapy on metalloproteinase-2 and metalloproteinase-9 activity and the expression of their inhibitors, as well as to assess the morphology of the animals' cardiac tissue. Our results suggest that chronic use of immunosuppressive drugs disrupts the balance between the activity of MMPs and TIMPs. Depending on the type of drug regimen used, this leads to abnormalities in the cardiac structure, collagen fiber accumulation, or cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. The information obtained in the present study allows us to conclude that the chronic treatment of rats with the most common clinical immunosuppressive regimens may contribute to abnormalities in the myocardial structure and function. The results presented in this study may serve as a prelude to more in-depth analyses and additional research into the optimal selection of an immunosuppressive treatment with the lowest possible risk of cardiovascular complications for patients receiving organ transplants.

Immunolocalization of Matrix Metalloproteinases 2 and 9 and Their Inhibitors in the Hearts of Rats Treated with Immunosuppressive Drugs-An Artificial Intelligence-Based Digital Analysis

BACKGROUND

Immunosuppressive agents represent a broad group of drugs, such as calcineurin inhibitors, mTOR inhibitors, and glucocorticosteroids, among others. These drugs are widely used in a number of conditions, but lifelong therapy is crucial in the case of organ recipients to prevent rejection. To further increase the safety and efficacy of these agents, their off-target mechanisms of action, as well as processes underlying the pathogenesis of adverse effects, need to be thoroughly investigated. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of various combinations of cyclosporine/tacrolimus/mycophenolate with rapamycin and steroids (CRG, TRG, MRG), on the morphology and morphometry of rats' cardiomyocytes, together with the presence of cardiac collagen and the immunoexpression of MMPs and TIMPs.

METHODS

Twenty-four rats were divided into four groups receiving different immunosuppressive regiments. After six months of treatment, the hearts were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS

Cardiomyocytes from the CRG cohorts demonstrated the most pronounced morphological alterations. In addition, chronic immunosuppression reduced the width and length of cardiac cells. However, immunosuppressive therapy did not alter the presence of cardiac collagen fibers. Nevertheless, we observed significant alterations regarding MMP/TIMP homeostasis.

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic immunosuppression seems to disturb the MMP/TIMP balance in aspects of immunolocalization in the hearts of rats. Further studies are required to analyze other mechanisms and pathways affected by the use of immunosuppressants.

The TGFβ system and TIMP1 and 3 genotypes in Turner syndrome-Relation with aortic congenital malformations

OBJECTIVE

Cardiovascular complications and congenital malformations are known traits in Turner syndrome (TS), which increases mortality. Women with TS have varying phenotype and cardiovascular risks. A biomarker assessing the risk for cardiovascular complications could potentially reduce mortality in high-risk TS and reduce screening in TS participants with low cardiovascular risk.

DESIGN, PATIENTS, PARTICIPANTS AND MEASUREMENTS

As part of a study initiated in 2002, 87 TS participants and 64 controls were invited to magnetic resonance imaging of the aorta, anthropometry, and biochemical markers. TS participants were re-examined thrice lastly in 2016. The focus of this paper is the additional measurements of transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP's), tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase (TIMP), peripheral blood DNA and their associations with TS and the cardiovascular risk and congenital heart disease.

RESULTS

TS participants had lower TGFβ1 and TGFβ2 values compared to controls. snp11547635 heterozygosity was not associated with any biomarkers but was associated with increased risk of aortic regurgitation. TIMP4 and TGFβ1 were correlated with the aortic diameter at several measuring positions. During follow-up, the antihypertensive treatment decreased the descending aortic diameter and increased TGFβ1 and TGFβ2 levels in TS.

CONCLUSION

TGFβ and TIMP's are altered in TS and may play a role in the development of coarctation and dilated aorta. snp11547635 heterozygosity was not found to impact biochemical markers. Further studies should investigate these biomarkers to further unravel the pathogenesis of the increased cardiovascular risk in TS participants.

Deglycosylation Increases the Aggregation and Angiogenic Properties of Mutant Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase 3 Protein: Implications for Sorsby Fundus Dystrophy

Sorsby fundus dystrophy (SFD) is an autosomal dominant macular disorder caused by mutations in tissue Inhibitor of the metalloproteinase-3 (TIMP3) gene with the onset of symptoms including choroidal neovascularization as early as the second decade of life. We have previously reported that wild-type TIMP3 is an endogenous angiogenesis inhibitor that inhibits Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF)-mediated signaling in endothelial cells. In contrast, SFD-related S179C-TIMP3 when expressed in endothelial cells, does not have angiogenesis-inhibitory properties. To evaluate if this is a common feature of TIMP3 mutants associated with SFD, we examined and compared endothelial cells expressing S179C, Y191C and S204C TIMP3 mutants for their angiogenesis-inhibitory function. Western blot analysis, zymography and reverse zymography and migration assays were utilized to evaluate TIMP3 protein, Matrix Metalloproteinase (MMP) and MMP inhibitory activity, VEGF signaling and in vitro migration in endothelial cells expressing (VEGF receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) and wild-type TIMP3 or mutant-TIMP3. We demonstrate that mutant S179C, Y191C- and S204C-TIMP3 all show increased glycosylation and multimerization/aggregation of the TIMP3 protein. In addition, endothelial cells expressing TIMP3 mutations show increased angiogenic activities and elevated VEGFR-2. Removal of N-glycosylation by mutation of Asn¹⁸⁴, the only potential N-glycosylation site in mutant TIMP3, resulted in increased aggregation of TIMP3, further upregulation of VEGFR-2, VEGF-induced phosphorylation of VEGFR2 and VEGF-mediated migration concomitant with reduced MMP inhibitory activity. These results suggest that even though mutant TIMP3 proteins are more glycosylated, post-translational deglycosylation may play a critical role in the aggregation of mutant TIMP3 and contribute to the pathogenesis of SFD. The identification of factors that might contribute to changes in the glycome of patients with SFD will be useful. Future studies will evaluate whether variations in the glycosylation of mutant TIMP3 proteins are contributing to the severity of the disease.

Simultaneous targeting of CD44 and MMP9 catalytic and hemopexin domains as a therapeutic strategy

Crosstalk of the oncogenic matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) and one of its ligands, CD44, involves cleavage of CD44 by the MMP9 catalytic domain, with the CD44–MMP9 interaction on the cell surface taking place through the MMP9 hemopexin domain (PEX). This interaction promotes cancer cell migration and invasiveness. In concert, MMP9-processed CD44 induces the expression of MMP9, which degrades ECM components and facilitates growth factor release and activation, cancer cell invasiveness, and metastasis. Since both MMP9 and CD44 contribute to cancer progression, we have developed a new strategy to fully block this neoplastic process by engineering a multi-specific inhibitor that simultaneously targets CD44 and both the catalytic and PEX domains of MMP9. Using a yeast surface display technology, we first obtained a high-affinity inhibitor for the MMP9 catalytic domain, which we termed C9, by modifying a natural non-specific MMP inhibitor, N-TIMP2. We then conjugated C9 via a flexible linker to PEX, thereby creating a multi-specific inhibitor (C9-PEX) that simultaneously targets the MMP9 catalytic and PEX domains and CD44. It is likely that, via its co-localization with CD44, C9-PEX may compete with MMP9 localization on the cell surface, thereby inhibiting MMP9 catalytic activity, reducing MMP9 cellular levels, interfering with MMP9 homodimerization, and reducing the activation of downstream MAPK/ERK pathway signaling. The developed platform could be extended to other oncogenic MMPs as well as to other important target proteins, thereby offering great promise for creating novel multi-specific therapeutics for cancer and other diseases.

Vitamin D supplementation has no effect on matrix metalloproteinases-2, -9, and tissue inhibitor matrix metalloproteinase-1 in subjects with metabolic syndrome: A pilot study

The present randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study aimed to evaluate the effect of vitamin D supplementation on matrix metalloproteinases-2, -9 (MMP-2 and MMP-9) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) in subjects with metabolic syndrome. Forty-six eligible subjects were randomly assigned to either vitamin D or placebo groups for 16 weeks. The participants were asked to take 50,000 IU vitamin D or matching placebo every week. Metabolic and anthropometric indices, serum MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1 and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) were assessed before and after intervention. Moreover, dietary intake, sun exposure and physical activity were also determined. The trial was registered at http://www.irct.ir (No. IRCT201409033140N14). Participants were 40.20 ± 4.60 y and 45.50% males. Compared to the baseline values, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 concentrations were decreased after 16 weeks in the intervention group (p = 0.03 and p = 0.04, respectively). However, the changes of MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1 and hsCRP in the intervention group were not significant compared to the placebo group (p > 0.05). Furthermore, the metabolic or anthropometric indices between two study groups remained unchanged (p > 0.05). The findings of the present study demonstrated no effect of vitamin D supplementation on MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 concentrations in subjects with metabolic syndrome. However, there is a need for more longitudinal trials to investigate the role of vitamin D on atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases in subjects with metabolic syndrome.

Expressions of matrix metalloproteinases 1 and 3 and their tissue inhibitors in the conjunctival tissue and fibroblasts cultured from conjunctivochalasis

AIM

To investigate the expression of matrix metalloproteinases 1 and 3 (MMP-1 and MMP-3) and their tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases 1 and 3 (TIMP-1 and TIMP-3) in the conjunctiva of eyes with conjunctivochalasis (CCh).

METHODS

The conjunctival tissue was obtained from the CCh patients and controls, the MMPs/TIMPs expression concentration was determined by enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA) and immunofluorescence staining. The expression levels of MMPs/TIMPs in the CCh fibro-blasts were determined by analyzing its concentration in the cellular supernatant that was abstracted from the in vitro cultured CCh fibroblasts.

RESULTS

MMP-1 and MMP-3 levels determined by ELISA were both significantly higher in the CCh group than that in the control group (P=0.042, 0.022, respectively), so was the levels of TIMP-1 (P=0.010). No significant difference in the expression of TIMP-3 in conjunctiva was found between the two groups (P=0.298). The expression of MMP-1 and MMP-3 were both up-regulated significantly in the CCh group (P=0.040, 0.001, respectively) on immuno-fluorescence staining. MMP-1 and MMP-3 expression in the fibroblasts were both significantly higher in the CCh group than that in the control group (P=0.027, 0.001, respectively), while neither the TIMP-1 nor TIMP-3 expression was significantly different between the two groups (P=0.421, 0.237, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The overexpression of MMP-1 and MMP-3 in conjunctival tissue and fibroblasts may play an important role in the pathogenesis and development of CCh.

Matrix metalloproteinase 2 level in human follicular fluid is a reliable marker of human oocyte maturation in in vitro fertilization and intracytoplasmic sperm injection cycles

BACKGROUND

To determine whether matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their tissue inhibitors (TIMP-1 and TIMP-2) in human follicular fluid, have any relationships with oocyte maturation in vivo and subsequent fertilization during in vitro fertilization (IVF) or intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) cycles.

METHODS

The follicular fluids were obtained from 150 female patients undergoing IVF/ICSI cycles and a total of 1504 oocytes were retrieved for analysis. MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities were measured using zymography assay. TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 concentrations were quantitatively assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

Human follicular fluid MMP-2 level was significantly associated with the rate of maturity of oocytes (P < 0.001). Furthermore, the MMP-2 was significantly associated with the higher fertilization rate (P < 0.01). There was no significant correlation between follicular MMP-9 and the maturation rate of oocytes. The TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 also showed no correlation with the oocyte maturation rate.

CONCLUSIONS

The level of gelatinase MMP-2 in human follicular fluid might be a reliable marker of mature oocytes during IVF/ICSI cycles. Furthermore, the MMP-2 expression has a strong association with higher fertilization rate. Further studies are needed to support this theory.

Elevated expression levels of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in placental villi and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 in decidua are associated with prolonged bleeding after mifepristone-misoprostol medical abortion

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether the expression levels of matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 (MMP-2 and -9) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases 1 and 2 (TIMP-1 and -2) in the villi and the decidua are associated with prolonged bleeding after medical abortion.

DESIGN

Case-controlled study.

SETTING

University hospital.

PATIENT(S)

Mifepristone-misoprostol medical abortion patients were divided into two groups (20 women each) based on the length of time (>14 or ≤14 days) of bleeding after the abortion.

INTERVENTION(S)

Discharged villi and deciduas were collected.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

The expression levels of MMP-2 and -9 and TIMP-1 and -2 in the villi and deciduas were assessed with semiquantitative immunohistochemistry.

RESULT(S)

The median semiquantitative immunohistochemistry staining index (SI) scores for MMP-9 expression in the villi were elevated in the bleeding group compared with the control group (median SI scores 0.31 and 0.03, respectively). TIMP-2 expression was elevated in the decidua in the bleeding group compared with the control group (median SI scores 1.00 and 0.20, respectively). No significant differences were observed between the two groups in the expression levels of MMP-2 in the villi or of MMP-2, MMP-9, or TIMP-1 or of the ratios of MMP-9/TIMP-1 or MMP-2/TIMP-2 in the decidua.

CONCLUSION(S)

Elevated expression levels of MMP-9 in the villi and of TIMP-2 in the decidua were associated with prolonged bleeding after medical abortion.

Monocyte-derived dendritic cell subpopulations use different types of matrix metalloproteinases inhibited by GM6001

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are endopeptidases with the potential to cleave extracellular matrix, support tissue renewal and regulate cell migration. Functional activities of MMPs are regulated by tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs) and disruption of the MMP-TIMP balance has pathological consequences. Here we studied the expression and secretion of MMPs and TIMPs in CD1a(-) and CD1a(+) monocyte-derived dendritic cell (DC) subpopulations. Our results showed that monocytes express TIMPs but lack MMPs, whereas upon differentiation to moDCs and in response to activation signals the expression of MMPs is increased and that of TIMPs is decreased. MMP-9 is expressed dominantly in the CD1a(-) subpopulation, while MMP-12 is preferentially expressed in CD1a(+) cells. Experiments performed with the synthetic MMP inhibitor GM6001 revealed that this drug efficiently inhibits the migration of moDCs through inactivation of MMPs. We conclude that modulation of MMP activity by GM6001 emerges as a novel approach to manipulate DC migration under inflammatory conditions.

The behavior of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in colorectal cancer

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play an important role in the degradation of extracellular matrix components crucial for tumor growth, invasion and metastasis. MMPs are controlled by natural inhibitors called tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). We and others have demonstrated that MMPs and TIMPs are especially important in the process of tumor invasion, progression and the metastasis of colorectal cancer (CRC). It has been proposed that MMPs and TIMPs might play a part not only in tumor invasion and initiation of metastasis but also in carcinogenesis from colorectal adenomas. Several recent studies demonstrated that high preoperative serum or plasma MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 antigen levels are strong predictive factors for poor prognosis in patients with CRC and their determination might be useful for identification of patients with higher risk for cancer recurrence. MMP-9 and TIMP-1 have significant potential tumor marker impact in CRC. Their diagnostic sensitivity is consistently higher than those of conventional biomarkers. The pharmacological targeting of CRC by the development of a new generation of selective inhibitors of MMPs, that is highly specific for certain MMPs, is a promising and challenging area for the future.

A comparative study of the effects of genistein and 2-methoxyestradiol on the proteolytic balance and tumour cell proliferation

The cytotoxicity of two compounds described as anti-angiogenic, the isoflavone genistein and the oestrogen metabolite 2-methoxyestradiol, has been studied in different human tumour cell lines. Since the degradation of the extracellular matrix is one of the essential steps in angiogenesis, the potential modulatory effects of both compounds on the proteolytic balance in media conditioned by different human tumour cells have been also investigated. The IC50 values for 2-methoxyestradiol were lower than those for genistein on all the cell lines tested. In all the cell lines expressing measurable amounts of active enzymes, genistein induced a shift towards antiproteolysis in both matrix metalloproteinase/tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase and urokinase/plasminogen activator inhibitor proteolytic balances. On the other hand, 2-methoxyestradiol did not produce any clear net shift of the proteolytic balance, with the significant exception of the matrix metalloproteinase/tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase balance in WAC-2 cells, a neuroblastoma cell line with enhanced expression of the N-myc oncogene.