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Shahinfar S, Maibach H. In vitro percutaneous penetration test overview. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1102433. [PMID: 37388444 PMCID: PMC10300277 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1102433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Skin is a detailed, organized, and intricate niche in the human body. Topical and transdermal drugs are unique, in that their absorption is quite different from other routes of administration (oral, intramuscular, intravenous, etc.,.). A robust amount of research is required to approve the use of a drug-in vivo, in vitro, and ex vivo studies collectively help manufacturers and government agencies with approval of various compounds. Use of human and animal studies poses ethical and financial concerns, making samples difficult to use. In vitro and ex vivo methods have improved over the past several decades-results show relevance when compared to in vivo methods. The history of testing is discussed, followed by a detailed account of known complexities of skin and the current state of percutaneous penetration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheeva Shahinfar
- Texas A&M University School of Medicine, Bryan, TX, United States
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2
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Serafini G, De Biase A, Lamazza L, Mazzucchi G, Lollobrigida M. Efficacy of Topical Treatments for the Management of Symptomatic Oral Lichen Planus: A Systematic Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023; 20:1202. [PMID: 36673955 PMCID: PMC9859481 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20021202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic mucosal inflammatory disease associated with T-cell-mediated immunological dysfunction. Symptomatic OLP is a painful condition, and complete healing is often not achieved. The aim of this systematic review was to assess the effectiveness of topical drugs, medications, and other interventions compared to placebo or to other treatments in pain reduction and clinical resolution in adult patients with symptomatic OLP. A detailed electronic literature search was performed through the MEDLINE (PubMed) database between 1 January 2005 and 30 September 2022. Eligible studies were selected based on the inclusion criteria, and a quality assessment was conducted. From 649 titles, 121 articles were selected as abstracts, 75 papers were assessed as full text, along with 15 other papers obtained through a manual search. A total of 15 RCTs were finally included in the review process. Because of the significant heterogeneity in the study design of the included studies, no meta-analysis of the data could be performed. Topical corticosteroids represent the first-line treatment in the management of symptomatic OLP due to their efficacy and minimal adverse effects. Calcineurin inhibitors seem to be equally effective and are indicated in recalcitrant cases, extensive lesions, patients susceptible to oral candidiasis, or cases unresponsive to corticosteroids. Other treatments, such as aloe vera, chamomile, isotretinoin, ozone, and laser therapy, could be beneficial as adjunct therapies in association with first-line treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Serafini
- Department of Oral and Maxillo Facial Sciences, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Via Caserta 6, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | | | - Luca Lamazza
- Department of Oral and Maxillo Facial Sciences, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Via Caserta 6, 00161 Rome, Italy
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Ordoñez-Toro A, Montero-Vilchez T, Muñoz-Baeza J, Sanabria-De-la-Torre R, Buendia-Eisman A, Arias-Santiago S. The Assessment of Skin Homeostasis Changes after Using Different Types of Excipients in Healthy Individuals. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2022; 19:16678. [PMID: 36554558 PMCID: PMC9778961 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192416678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Excipients are used as vehicles for topical treatments; however, there are not many studies that evaluate the impact of different excipients themselves. The aim of this research is to assess skin homeostasis changes in healthy individuals after using water/oil (W/O), oil/water (O/W), Beeler base, foam and Vaseline excipients. A within-person randomized trial was conducted that included healthy individuals without previous skin diseases. Skin barrier function parameters, including stratum corneum hydration (SCH), transepidermal water loss (TEWL), pH, temperature, erythema, melanin and elasticity (R0, R2, R5 and R7), were measured on the volar forearm before and after using each excipient. Sixty participants were included in the study, with a mean age of 32 years. After applying w/o excipient erythema decreased by 25 AU, (p < 0.001) and elasticity increased by 6%. After using the o/w excipient, erythema decreased by 39.36 AU (p < 0.001) and SCH increased by 6.85 AU (p = 0.009). When applying the Beeler excipient, erythema decreased by 41.23 AU (p < 0.001) and SCH increased by 15.92 AU (p < 0.001). Foam and Vaseline decreased TEWL and erythema. Excipients have a different impact on skin barrier function. Knowing the effect of excipients on the skin could help to develop new topical treatments and help specialists to choose the best excipient according to the pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abraham Ordoñez-Toro
- Dermatology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18001 Granada, Spain
| | - Trinidad Montero-Vilchez
- Dermatology Department, Virgen de las Nieves University Hospital, 18012 Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, 18002 Granada, Spain
| | - José Muñoz-Baeza
- Dermatology Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, 18001 Granada, Spain
| | | | - Agustin Buendia-Eisman
- Dermatology Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, 18001 Granada, Spain
| | - Salvador Arias-Santiago
- Dermatology Department, Virgen de las Nieves University Hospital, 18012 Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, 18002 Granada, Spain
- Dermatology Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, 18001 Granada, Spain
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Roumeau I, Coutu A, Navel V, Pereira B, Baker JS, Chiambaretta F, Bremond-Gignac D, Dutheil F. Efficacy of medical treatments for vernal keratoconjunctivitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2021; 148:822-834. [PMID: 33819510 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2021.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vernal keratoconjunctivitis (VKC) is a severe type of allergic conjunctivitis for which treatment strategies are still under debate. OBJECTIVES This study sought to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the efficacy of medical treatments for VKC. METHODS The PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, and ScienceDirect databases were searched to assess the efficacy of treatments for VKC. Random-effect meta-analyses on changes in clinical scores of symptoms and signs between baseline and after treatment, stratified on treatment classes, were computed. Meta-regressions were searched for potential influencing parameters. RESULTS Included were 45 studies (27 randomized controlled trials and 18 prospective cohort studies), 1749 patients (78% were men; mean age, 11.2 years), and 12 different treatment classes. Mast cell stabilizers (MCSs; usually considered as first-line therapy), cyclosporine, and tacrolimus were the most studied drugs (in three-quarters of studies). Overall, all clinical scores improved. Total symptom and sign score decreased for MCSs (effect size, -3.19; 95% CI, -4.26 to -2.13), cyclosporine (effect size, -2.06; 95% CI, -2.72 to -1.40), and tacrolimus (effect size, -2.39; 95% CI, -3.36 to -1.43). No significant differences were shown depending on treatment classes, concentration, age, sex, baseline activity scores, and atopy. Sensitivity analyses demonstrated similar results. CONCLUSIONS This study confirms the efficacy of MCSs in the treatment of VKC. Efficacy of cyclosporine and tacrolimus did not differ, suggesting that tacrolimus is a good alternative to cyclosporine for severe cases of VKC. Further studies are needed to compare other drugs and their precise place in treatment strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inès Roumeau
- Ophthalmology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Clermont-Ferrand, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Adrien Coutu
- Ophthalmology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Clermont-Ferrand, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Valentin Navel
- Ophthalmology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Clermont-Ferrand, Clermont-Ferrand, France; Translational Approach to Epithelial Injury and Repair Department, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Génétique Reproduction et Développement, Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | - Bruno Pereira
- Biostatistics Unit, Clinical Research and Innovation Direction, University Hospital of Clermont-Ferrand, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Julien S Baker
- Hong Kong Baptist University, Centre for Health and Exercise Science Research, Physical Education and Health, Kowlon Tong, Hong Kong
| | - Frédéric Chiambaretta
- Ophthalmology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Clermont-Ferrand, Clermont-Ferrand, France; Translational Approach to Epithelial Injury and Repair Department, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Génétique Reproduction et Développement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Dominique Bremond-Gignac
- Ophthalmology Department, University Hospital Necker Enfants Malades, Paris, France; Sorbonne Paris Cité University, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité Mixte de Recherche S1138, Team 17, From Physiopathology of Ocular Diseases to Clinical Development, Cordeliers Search Centre, Paris, France
| | - Frédéric Dutheil
- Physiological and Psychosocial Stress Department, Laboratoire de Psychologie Sociale et Cognitive, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France; Preventive and Occupational Medicine Department, WittyFit, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Clermont-Ferrand, University Hospital of Clermont-Ferrand, Clermont-Ferrand, France; Faculty of Health, School of Exercise Science, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
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Lossius AH, Lorentzen M, Austad J, Bergersen TK. Contact allergy in patients with chronic venous leg ulcers. Contact Dermatitis 2021; 84:470-472. [PMID: 33368388 DOI: 10.1111/cod.13770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Astrid H Lossius
- Department of Dermatology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Merete Lorentzen
- Department of Dermatology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Joar Austad
- Department of Dermatology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tone K Bergersen
- Department of Dermatology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Gilissen L, Schollaert I, Huygens S, Goossens A. Iatrogenic allergic contact dermatitis in the (peri)anal and genital area. Contact Dermatitis 2021; 84:431-438. [PMID: 33350482 DOI: 10.1111/cod.13764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) from topical medication often occurs in occluded areas, for example, with wound treatment, but also in certain body locations, such as the anogenital area. OBJECTIVES To investigate the demographics and specific lesion location of patients with ACD from topical drugs applied onto the (peri)anal/genital area, and to identify the respective causal topical pharmaceutical products and ingredients involved. METHODS From January 2000 to December 10, 2018, 532 patients were tested with the baseline series, sometimes with additional series, and the topical medication used along with the ingredients. The relevant data were extracted from our electronic databases developed in-house. RESULTS Forty-four patients (9%) out of 473 patients suffering from lesions in the (peri)anal/genital area had positive patch test results to topical drug preparations and/or their ingredients, sometimes in association with cosmetics for intimate hygiene. The most frequent sensitizing active principles were local anaesthetics and corticosteroids, while wool alcohols and to a minor extent benzoic acid were the most frequent culprits among the vehicle components and preservative agents, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The local conditions (eg, occlusion, sweating, moist) in the anogenital area may favour skin sensitization to topical medication used to treat various skin diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesbeth Gilissen
- Department of Dermatology, Contact Allergy Unit, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Allergy and Clinical Immunology Research Group, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Sara Huygens
- Department of Dermatology, Contact Allergy Unit, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - An Goossens
- Department of Dermatology, Contact Allergy Unit, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Allergy and Clinical Immunology Research Group, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Svendsen MT, Feldman SR, Tiedemann SN, Stochholm Sørensen AS, Rivas CMR, Andersen KE. Dermatology nurses view on factors related to Danish psoriasis patients' adherence to topical drugs: a focus group study. J DERMATOL TREAT 2019; 32:497-502. [PMID: 31664863 DOI: 10.1080/09546634.2019.1687817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Topical medications are first-line treatment for mild-to-moderate psoriasis, but adherence is low, which negatively affects patients' outcomes and quality of life. Nurses can play a central role in patient care, particularly in improving adherence. OBJECTIVES To explore the experience of dermatology nurses with psoriasis patients' adherence to topical drugs. METHODS We conducted a semi-structured focus group study with 6 dermatology nurses and 2 dermatology nursing students. Participants were recruited from a dermatology hospital outpatient clinic. Data were analyzed by a systematic text condensation method with a phenomenological-hermeneutic approach. RESULTS Nurses experienced that factors such as social inequality, patient-centered nursing, and patients' quality of life can have an influence on adherence. CONCLUSION Optimal adherence to topical treatments is a complex exercise and is influenced by many different factors. Involving nurses when prescribing topical treatments may be beneficial since they are one of the most trustworthy professions and have a holistic view on psoriasis severity, patient preferences, health care resources available and socioeconomic factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Tiedemann Svendsen
- Research Unit of the Dermato-Venerology and Allergy Center, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Steven R Feldman
- Research Unit of the Dermato-Venerology and Allergy Center, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,Department of Dermatology (Center for Dermatology Research), Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | - Klaus Ejner Andersen
- Research Unit of the Dermato-Venerology and Allergy Center, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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Svendsen MT, Feldman SR, Tiedemann SN, Sørensen ASS, Rivas CMR, Andersen KE. Psoriasis patient preferences for topical drugs: a systematic review. J DERMATOL TREAT 2019; 32:478-483. [PMID: 31610687 DOI: 10.1080/09546634.2019.1675855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Topical drugs are recommended first-line treatment for mild-to-moderate psoriasis. However, patient preferences for the topical drugs differ, since a wide variety of topical drugs and topical drug formulations are available. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to investigate psoriasis patient preferences for topical drugs. METHODS A systematic literature search was performed for English-language articles in Embase, Medline, PsycINFO, Cinahl, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library. RESULTS Four surveys, six randomized controlled trials, and two prospective studies of mainly good quality were included. Seven of the studies investigated patient preferences for topical drug formulations, while five studies investigated their preferences for different topical drugs. Overall, patients preferred drugs that are easy to apply, less messy, and have a pleasant scent. CONCLUSION Psoriasis patient preferences for topical drugs differ. There is no one topical drug or topical drug formulation that suits everyone, which shows the importance of individualized prescriptions for topical drugs that are based on shared decision-making between the prescriber and patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Tiedemann Svendsen
- Research Unit of the Dermato-Venerology and Allergy Center, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Steven R Feldman
- Research Unit of the Dermato-Venerology and Allergy Center, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,Department of Dermatology (Center for Dermatology Research), Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | - Klaus Ejner Andersen
- Research Unit of the Dermato-Venerology and Allergy Center, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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Paoli J, Gyllencreutz JD, Fougelberg J, Backman EJ, Modin M, Polesie S, Zaar O. Nonsurgical Options for the Treatment of Basal Cell Carcinoma. Dermatol Pract Concept 2019; 9:75-81. [PMID: 31106008 DOI: 10.5826/dpc.0902a01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives The aim of this review article is to summarize the effectiveness, potential adverse events, and indications of the main nonsurgical treatment alternatives for basal cell carcinoma. Methods An extensive literature review was carried out. The most relevant articles were discussed and selected by the authors in order to provide a brief but evidence-based overview of the most common nonsurgical methods used for treating basal cell carcinoma. Results Although surgery and Mohs micrographic surgery are often considered the optimal treatment options for basal cell carcinoma, these tumors can also be treated successfully with destructive techniques (eg, curettage alone, cryosurgery, or electrodesiccation), photodynamic therapy, topical drugs (eg, 5-fluorouracil, imiquimod, or ingenol mebutate), radiotherapy, or hedgehog pathway inhibitors. When choosing between these alternatives, physicians must take into consideration the tumor's size, location, and histopathological subtype. Special care should be taken when treating recurrent tumors. Furthermore, physician experience is of great importance when using destructive techniques. Finally, patient preference, potential adverse events, and cosmetic outcome should also be considered. Conclusions Dermatologists and physicians treating basal cell carcinoma should have knowledge of and experience with the large arsenal of therapeutic alternatives available for the successful, safe, and individualized management of patients with basal cell carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Paoli
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Julia Fougelberg
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Eva Johansson Backman
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Maja Modin
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Sam Polesie
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Oscar Zaar
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Leppert W, Malec-Milewska M, Zajaczkowska R, Wordliczek J. Transdermal and Topical Drug Administration in the Treatment of Pain. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23030681. [PMID: 29562618 PMCID: PMC6017304 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23030681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The comprehensive treatment of pain is multidimodal, with pharmacotherapy playing a key role. An effective therapy for pain depends on the intensity and type of pain, the patients' age, comorbidities, and appropriate choice of analgesic, its dose and route of administration. This review is aimed at presenting current knowledge on analgesics administered by transdermal and topical routes for physicians, nurses, pharmacists, and other health care professionals dealing with patients suffering from pain. Analgesics administered transdermally or topically act through different mechanisms. Opioids administered transdermally are absorbed into vessels located in subcutaneous tissue and, subsequently, are conveyed in the blood to opioid receptors localized in the central and peripheral nervous system. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) applied topically render analgesia mainly through a high concentration in the structures of the joint and a provision of local anti-inflammatory effects. Topically administered drugs such as lidocaine and capsaicin in patches, capsaicin in cream, EMLA cream, and creams containing antidepressants (i.e., doxepin, amitriptyline) act mainly locally in tissues through receptors and/or ion channels. Transdermal and topical routes offer some advantages over systemic analgesic administration. Analgesics administered topically have a much better profile for adverse effects as they relieve local pain with minimal systemic effects. The transdermal route apart from the above-mentioned advantages and provision of long period of analgesia may be more convenient, especially for patients who are unable to take drugs orally. Topically and transdermally administered opioids are characterised by a lower risk of addiction compared to oral and parenteral routes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Leppert
- Department of Palliative Medicine, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Osiedle Rusa 55, 61-645 Poznan, Poland.
| | - Malgorzata Malec-Milewska
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Medical Centre of Postgraduate Education, 01-813 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Renata Zajaczkowska
- Department of Interdisciplinary Intensive Care, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 31-008 Krakow, Poland.
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Therapy, University Hospital, 31-501 Krakow, Poland.
| | - Jerzy Wordliczek
- Department of Interdisciplinary Intensive Care, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 31-008 Krakow, Poland.
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Therapy, University Hospital, 31-501 Krakow, Poland.
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