Hydrogenosomal succinyl-CoA synthetase from the rumen-dwelling fungus Neocallimastix patriciarum; an energy-producing enzyme of mitochondrial origin

Hydrogenosomes are hydrogen-producing organelles that are related to mitochondria and found in a variety of evolutionarily unrelated anaerobic microbial eukaryotes. Similar to classic mitochondria, hydrogenosomes contain the enzyme catalyzing the only reaction of the citric acid cycle directly producing energy; succinyl-CoA synthetase. We have isolated and characterized the genes encoding both subunits of this enzyme from the anaerobic chytrid fungus Neocallimastix patriciarum, a model organism in hydrogenosome research. Both subunits contain all characteristic features of this enzyme, including predicted hydrogenosomal targeting signals. Phylogenetic analyses of succinyl-CoA synthetase clearly indicate its mitochondrial ancestry, both by affiliation with mitochondrially localized fungal homologues and by the sisterhood of the eukaryotic succinyl-CoA synthetase clade with alpha-proteobacteria. Our analyses of the Trichomonas vaginalis SCS sequences also confirmed the mitochondrial affiliation of these hydrogenosomal enzymes, in contrast to previous results. While both hydrogenosomal and mitochondrial succinyl-CoA synthetase homologues have been identified, no succinyl-CoA synthetase proteins were identifiable in taxa possessing another mitochondrially derived organelle, the mitosome. Our analyses further confirm the mitochondrial ancestry of the Neocallimastix hydrogenosome and sheds light upon the stepwise process by which mitochondria evolve into alternate forms of the organelle.

InterfacingPichia pastoris cultivation with expanded bed adsorption

For improved interfacing of the Pichia pastoris fed-batch cultivation process with expanded bed adsorption (EBA) technique, a modified cultivation technique was developed. The modification included the reduction of the medium salt concentration, which was then kept constant by regulating the medium conductivity at low value (about 8 mS/cm) by salt feeding. Before loading, the low conductivity culture broth was diluted only to reduce viscosity, caused by high cell density. The concept was applied to a one-step recovery and purification procedure for a fusion protein composed of a cellulose-binding module (CBM) from Neocallimastix patriciarum cellulase 6A fused to lipase B from Candida antarctica (CALB). The modified cultivation technique resulted in lower cell death and consequently lower concentration of proteases and other contaminating proteins in the culture broth. Flow cytometry analysis showed 1% dead (propidium-stained) cells compared to 3.5% in the reference process. During the whole process of cultivation and recovery, no proteolysis was detected and in the end of the cultivation, the product constituted 87% of the total supernatant protein. The lipase activity in the culture supernatant increased at an almost constant rate up to a value corresponding to 2.2 g/L of CBM-CALB. In the EBA process, no cell-adsorbent interaction was detected but the cell density had to be reduced by a two-times dilution to keep a proper bed expansion. At flow velocity of 400 cm/h, the breakthrough capacity was 12.4 g/L, the product yield 98%, the concentration factor 3.6 times, the purity about 90%, and the productivity 2.1 g/L x h.

Expression of rumen microbial fibrolytic enzyme genes in probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri

This study was aimed at evaluating the cloning and expression of three rumen microbial fibrolytic enzyme genes in a strain of Lactobacillus reuteri and investigating the probiotic characteristics of these genetically modified lactobacilli. The Neocallimastix patriciarum xylanase gene xynCDBFV, the Fibrobacter succinogenes beta-glucanase (1,3-1,4-beta-D-glucan 4-glucanohydrolase [EC 3.2.1.73]) gene, and the Piromyces rhizinflata cellulase gene eglA were cloned in a strain of L. reuteri isolated from the gastrointestinal tract of broilers. The enzymes were expressed and secreted under the control of the Lactococcus lactis lacA promoter and its secretion signal. The L. reuteri transformed strains not only acquired the capacity to break down soluble carboxymethyl cellulose, beta-glucan, or xylan but also showed high adhesion efficiency to mucin and mucus and resistance to bile salt and acid.

Pyruvate formate lyase (PFL) and PFL activating enzyme in the chytrid fungus Neocallimastix frontalis: a free-radical enzyme system conserved across divergent eukaryotic lineages

Fermentative formate production involves the activity of pyruvate formate lyase, an oxygen-sensitive enzyme that employs a glycyl radical in its reaction mechanism. While common among anaerobic prokaryotes, this enzyme has so far been found in only two distantly related eukaryotic lineages, anaerobic chytridiomycetes and chlorophytes. Sequence comparisons of homologues from the chytridiomycetes Piromyces and Neocallimastix, the chlorophyte Chlamydomonas, and numerous prokaryotes suggest a single, eubacterial origin of eukaryotic pyruvate formate lyases. Pyruvate formate lyase activating enzyme introduces the glycyl radical into the pyruvate formate lyase protein chain. We discovered this enzyme, which had not previously been reported from eukaryotes, in the same two eukaryotic lineages and show that it shares a similar evolutionary history to pyruvate formate lyase. Sequences with high homology to pyruvate formate lyase activating enzyme were identified in the genomes of the anaerobic protozoan parasites Trichomonas vaginalis, Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia intestinalis. While the occurrence of pyruvate formate lyase activating enzyme together with pyruvate formate lyase in fungi and chlorophytes was to be expected, the target protein of a glycyl radical enzyme-activating enzyme in these protozoa remains to be identified.

Fungal hydrogenosomes contain mitochondrial heat-shock proteins

At least three groups of anaerobic eukaryotes lack mitochondria and instead contain hydrogenosomes, peculiar organelles that make energy and excrete hydrogen. Published data indicate that ciliate and trichomonad hydrogenosomes share common ancestry with mitochondria, but the evolutionary origins of fungal hydrogenosomes have been controversial. We have now isolated full-length genes for heat shock proteins 60 and 70 from the anaerobic fungus Neocallimastix patriciarum, which phylogenetic analyses reveal share common ancestry with mitochondrial orthologues. In aerobic organisms these proteins function in mitochondrial import and protein folding. Homologous antibodies demonstrated the localization of both proteins to fungal hydrogenosomes. Moreover, both sequences contain amino-terminal extensions that in heterologous targeting experiments were shown to be necessary and sufficient to locate both proteins and green fluorescent protein to the mitochondria of mammalian cells. This finding, that fungal hydrogenosomes use mitochondrial targeting signals to import two proteins of mitochondrial ancestry that play key roles in aerobic mitochondria, provides further strong evidence that the fungal organelle is also of mitochondrial ancestry. The extraordinary capacity of eukaryotes to repeatedly evolve hydrogen-producing organelles apparently reflects a general ability to modify the biochemistry of the mitochondrial compartment.

The genetic similarity of different generations of Neocallimastix frontalis SK

The genetic similarity of different generations of Neocallimastix frontalis SK was examined by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) profiling and internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) sequence analysis. N. frontalis SK was subcultured every 2-4 days, and SK-1, SK-3M, and SK-1Y represented N. frontalis SK cultures after one subculture, 50 subcultures, and 150 subcultures. The DNA polymorphisms of the different N. frontalis SK generations were compared by RAPD profiling. The RAPD results gave the same patterns for SK-1, SK-3M and SK-1Y using 12 selected random primers. The partial 18S rDNA, 5.8S rDNA, and ITS1 regions of different generations of N. frontalis SK were amplified and sequenced. The results of alignment and pairwise similarity indicated that the analyzed rRNA sequences of SK-1, SK-3M and SK-1Y were totally identical. This study thus demonstrated genetically identical DNA polymorphisms by RAPD profiling and an unvaried ITS1 region for N. frontalis SK when the strain is subcultured frequently. This suggests that this strain is homokaryotic and grows via an asexual life cycle in vitro.

Analysis and control of proteolysis of a fusion protein in Pichia pastoris fed-batch processes

A fusion protein composed of a cellulose-binding module (CBM) from Neocallimastix patriciarum cellulase 6A and lipase B from Candida antarctica (CALB), was produced by Pichia pastoris Mut(+) in high-cell density bioreactor cultures. The production was induced by switching from growth on glycerol to growth on methanol. The lipase activity in the culture supernatant increased at an almost constant rate up to a value corresponding to 1.3 g x l(-1) of CBM-CALB. However, only about 40% of the product was of full-length according to Western blot analysis. This loss was due to a cleavage of the protein in the linker between the CBM and the CALB moieties. The cleavage was catalyzed by serine proteases in the culture supernatant. The CALB-moiety was subjected to further slow degradation by cell-associated proteolysis. Different strategies were used to reduce the proteolysis. Previous efforts to shorten the linker region resulted in a stable protein but with ten times reduced product concentration in bioreactor cultures (Gustavsson et al. 2001, Protein Eng. 14, 711-715). Addition of rich medium for protease substrate competition had no effect on the proteolysis of CBM-CALB. The kinetics for the proteolytic reactions, with and without presence of cells were shown to be influenced by pH. The fastest reaction, cleavage in the linker, was substantially reduced at pH values below 5.0. Decreasing the pH from 5.0 to 4.0 in bioreactor cultures resulted in an increase of the fraction of full-length product from 40 to 90%. Further improvement was achieved by decreasing the temperature from 30 to 22 degrees C during the methanol feed phase. By combining the optimal pH and the low temperature almost all product (1.5 g x l(-1)) was obtained as full-length protein with a considerably higher purity in the culture supernatant compared with the original cultivation.

Catalytic properties of endoxylanase fusion proteins from Neocallimastix frontalis and effect of immobilization onto metal-chelate matrix

The production of hybrid enzymes with novel properties and the research for new methods for enzyme immobilization in bioreactors are of major interest in biotechnology. We report here the second part of a study concerning the improvement of the properties of the endoxylanase XYN3A4 from the anaerobic fungi Neocallimastix frontalis. The effects of gene fusion and immobilization on metal-chelate matrix are also compared for the reference enzymes XYN3, XYN3A, XYN4 used for the construction of the fusion protein XYN3A4. The influence of the metal ion in the immobilization process was first investigated and best immobilization yields were obtained with the Cu(II) ion whereas best coupling efficiencies were reached with the Ni(II) ion. It was also observed that XYN3, XYN3A and XYN34 had a lower rate of hydrolysis when immobilized on Ni(II)-IDA and more difficulties to accomodate small substrates than the soluble enzymes. Nevertheless, a major difference was noted during the hydrolysis of birchwood xylan and it appears that the reaction using the immobilized XYN3A4 chimeric enzyme leads to the accumulation of a specific product.

Transformation and expression of an anaerobic fungal xylanase in several strains of the rumen bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens

AIMS

To obtain reliable transformation of a range of Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens strains and to express a Neocallimastix patriciarum xylanase gene in the recipients.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Eight strains (H17c, E14, LP1309, LP1028, AR11a, OB156, LP210B and LP461A) of Bu. fibrisolvens were transformed by the Gram-positive vector pUB110. A xylanase expression/secretion cassette containing Bu. fibrisolvens promoter and signal peptide elements fused to catalytic domain II of the N. patriciarum xylanase A cDNA (xynANp) was inserted into pUB110 to create the plasmid pUBxynA. pUBxynA was used to transform seven of the Bu. fibrisolvens strains transformed by pUB110. In strain H17c pUBxynA, which produced native xylanase, 2.46 U mg-1 total xylanase activity was produced with 45% extracellular xylanase. In strain H17c pUMSX, 0.74 U mg-1 total xylanase activity was produced with 98% extracellular xylanase. H17c pUBxynA exhibited increased (28.7%) degradation of neutral detergent fibre compared with unmodified H17c; however, progressive loss of pUBxynA was observed in long-term cultivation.

CONCLUSIONS

A stable transformation system was developed that was applicable for a range of Bu. fibrisolvens strains and high levels of expression of a recombinant xylanase were obtained in H17c which lead to increased fibre digestion.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This stable transformation system with the accompanying recombinant plasmids will be a useful tool for further investigation aimed at improving ruminal fibre digestion.

An [Fe] hydrogenase from the anaerobic hydrogenosome-containing fungus Neocallimastix frontalis L2

Hydrogenases, oxygen-sensitive enzymes that can make hydrogen gas, are key to the function of hydrogen-producing organelles (hydrogenosomes), which occur in anaerobic eukaryotes scattered throughout the eukaryotic tree. All of the eukaryotic enzymes characterized so far are iron-only [Fe] hydrogenases. In contrast, it has previously been suggested that hydrogenosomes of the best-studied anaerobic fungus Neocallimastix frontalis L2 contain an unrelated iron-nickel-selenium [NiFeSe] hydrogenase. We have isolated a gene from strain L2 that encodes a putative protein containing all of the characteristic features of an iron-only [Fe] hydrogenase, including the cysteine residues required for the co-ordination of the unique 'hydrogen cluster'. As is the case for experimentally verified hydrogenosomal matrix enzymes from N. frontalis, the [Fe] hydrogenase encodes a plausible amino terminal extension that resembles mitochondrial targeting signals. Phylogenetic analyses of an expanded [Fe] hydrogenase dataset reveal a complicated picture that is difficult to interpret in the light of current ideas of species relationships. Nevertheless, our analyses cannot reject the hypothesis that the novel [Fe] hydrogenase gene of Neocallimastix is specifically related to other eukaryote [Fe] hydrogenases, and thus ultimately might be traced to the same ancestral source.

Multiple origins of hydrogenosomes: functional and phylogenetic evidence from the ADP/ATP carrier of the anaerobic chytrid Neocallimastix sp

A mitochondrial-type ADP/ATP carrier (AAC) has been identified in the hydrogenosomes of the anaerobic chytridiomycete fungus Neocallimastix sp. L2. Biochemical and immunocytochemical studies revealed that this ADP/ATP carrier is an integral component of hydrogenosomal membranes. Expression of the corresponding cDNA in Escherichia coli confers the ability on the bacterial host to incorporate ADP at significantly higher rates than ATP--similar to isolated mitochondria of yeast and animals. Phylogenetic analysis of this AAC gene (hdgaac) confirmed with high statistical support that the hydrogenosomal ADP/ATP carrier of Neocallimastix sp. L2 belongs to the family of veritable mitochondrial-type AACs. Hydrogenosome-bearing anaerobic ciliates possess clearly distinct mitochondrial-type AACs, whereas the potential hydrogenosomal carrier Hmp31 of the anaerobic flagellate Trichomonas vaginalis and its homologue from Trichomonas gallinae do not belong to this family of proteins. Also, phylogenetic analysis of genes encoding mitochondrial-type chaperonin 60 proteins (HSP 60) supports the conclusion that the hydrogenosomes of anaerobic chytrids and anaerobic ciliates had independent origins, although both of them arose from mitochondria.

A hydrogenosomal [Fe]-hydrogenase from the anaerobic chytrid Neocallimastix sp. L2

The presence of a [Fe]-hydrogenase in the hydrogenosomes of the anaerobic chytridiomycete fungus Neocallimastix sp. L2 has been demonstrated by immunocytochemistry, subcellular fractionation, Western-blotting and measurements of hydrogenase activity in the presence of various concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO). Since the hydrogenosomal hydrogenase activity can be inhibited nearly completely by low concentrations of CO, it is likely that the [Fe]-hydrogenase is responsible for at least 90% of the hydrogen production in isolated hydrogenosomes. Most likely, this hydrogenase is encoded by the gene hydL2 that exhibits all the motifs that are characteristic of [Fe]-hydrogenases. The open reading frame starts with an N-terminal extension of 38 amino acids that has the potential to function as a hydrogenosomal targeting signal. The downstream sequences encode an enzyme of a calculated molecular mass of 66.4 kDa that perfectly matches the molecular mass of the mature hydrogenase in the hydrogenosome. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the hydrogenase of Neocallimastix sp. L2. clusters together with similar ('long-type') [Fe]-hydrogenases from Trichomonas vaginalis, Nyctotherus ovalis, Desulfovibrio vulgaris and Thermotoga maritima. Phylogenetic analysis based on the H-cluster - the only module of [Fe]-hydrogenases that is shared by all types of [Fe]-hydrogenases and hydrogenase-like proteins - revealed a monophyly of all hydrogenase-like proteins of the aerobic eukaryotes. Our analysis suggests that the evolution of the various [Fe]-hydrogenases and hydrogenase-like proteins occurred by a differential loss of Fe-S clusters in the N-terminal part of the [Fe]-hydrogenase.

Directed evolution to produce an alkalophilic variant from a Neocallimastix patriciarum xylanase

The catalytic domain of a xylanase from the anaerobic fungus Neocallimastix patriciarum was made more alkalophilic through directed evolution using error-prone PCR. Transformants expressing the alkalophilic variant xylanases produced larger clear zones when overlaid with high pH, xylan-containing agar. Eight amino acid substitutions were identified in six selected mutant xylanases. Whereas the wild-type xylanase exhibited no activity at pH 8.5, the relative and specific activities of the six mutants were higher at pH 8.5 than at pH 6.0. Seven of the eight amino acid substitutions were assembled in one enzyme (xyn-CDBFV) by site-directed mutagenesis. Some or all of the seven mutations exerted positive and possibly synergistic effects on the alkalophilicity of the enzyme. The resulting composite mutant xylanase retained a greater proportion of its activity than did the wild type at pH above 7.0, maintaining 25% of its activity at pH 9.0, and its retention of activity at acid pH was no lower than that of the wild type. The composite xylanase (xyn-CDBFV) had a relatively high specific activity of 10128 micromol glucose x min(-1) x (mg protein)(-1) at pH 6.0. It was more thermostable at 60 degrees C and alkaline tolerant at pH 10.0 than the wild-type xylanase. These properties suggest that the composite mutant xylanase is a promising and suitable candidate for paper pulp bio-bleaching.

Clostridium beijerinckii cells expressing Neocallimastix patriciarum glycoside hydrolases show enhanced lichenan utilization and solvent production

Growth and the production of acetone, butanol, and ethanol by Clostridium beijerinckii NCIMB 8052 on several polysaccharides and sugars were analyzed. On crystalline cellulose, growth and solvent production were observed only when a mixture of fungal cellulases was added to the medium. On lichenan growth and solvent production occurred, but this polymer was only partially utilized. To increase utilization of these polymers and subsequent solvent production, the genes for two new glycoside hydrolases, celA and celD from the fungus Neocallimastix patriciarum, were cloned separately into C. beijerinckii. To do this, a secretion vector based on the pMTL500E shuttle vector and containing the promoter and signal sequence coding region of the Clostridium saccharobutylicum NCP262 eglA gene was constructed and fused either to the celA gene or the celD gene. Stable C. beijerinckii transformants were obtained with the resulting plasmids, pWUR3 (celA) and pWUR4 (celD). The recombinant strains showed clear halos on agar plates containing carboxymethyl cellulose upon staining with Congo red. In addition, their culture supernatants had significant endoglucanase activities (123 U/mg of protein for transformants harboring celA and 78 U/mg of protein for transformants harboring celD). Although C. beijerinckii harboring either celA or celD was not able to grow, separately or in mixed culture, on carboxymethyl cellulose or microcrystalline cellulose, both transformants showed a significant increase in solvent production during growth on lichenan and more extensive degradation of this polymer than that exhibited by the wild-type strain.

[PCR amplification of anaerobic fungal 18S rDNA from landfill sites]

Nucleic acid based techniques are widely used to characterize microbial communities in environmental samples. In this study, seven landfill leachates were tested for the presence of 18S rRNA genes from anaerobic fungi from the family Chytridiomycetes. A nested Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) strategy was employed to amplify the 18S rRNA gene region of Chytridiomycetous fungi from landfill sites samples. All of the PCR products from landfill leachates amplified with the first primer pair NS1/NS8 and the second primer pair Chyt-719/Chyt-1553 were subjected to agarose gel electrophoresis to show seven samples containing fungi from the family Chytridiomycetes. One of the positive results was then selected for cloning and sequencing of the PCR product to confirm the identity of the amplified DNA. The molecular data presented here reveals for the first time that Chytridiomycetous fungi associated with the anaerobic rumen environment are also present in landfill sites.

Expression of a modified Neocallimastix patriciarum xylanase in Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens digests more fibre but cannot effectively compete with highly fibrolytic bacteria in the rumen

AIMS

This study investigated the competitive abilities of two Neocallimastix patriciarum-derived xylanases constructs in Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens H17c (xynA and pUMSX) and their ability to compete in vivo.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The digestibility of neutral detergent fibre (NDF) increased during co-culture of xynA or pUMSX and weakly cellulolytic, but not with highly cellulolytic, ruminococci. Competition studies among xynA, pUMSX and cellulolytic consortia demonstrated that xynA was the fittest. XynA did not persist at high levels in the rumen and was undetectable after 22 days.

CONCLUSION

The construction of recombinant xylanolytic B. fibrisolvens does improve the digestibility of fibre above that of the native, but digestibility is still less than that of the most potent fibre digesters such as ruminococci.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Fibre digestion may be improved by genetic manipulation of ruminal bacteria but ecological parameters, such as persistence in vivo and the niche of the organism, must be taken into account.

Identification and characterization of anaerobic gut fungi using molecular methodologies based on ribosomal ITS1 and 185 rRNA

The gut fungi are an unusual group of zoosporic fungi occupying a unique ecological niche, the anaerobic environment of the rumen. They exhibit two basic forms, with nuclear migration throughout the hyphal mass for polycentric species and with concentration of nuclear material in a zoosporangium for monocentric species. Differentiation between isolates of these fungi is difficult using conventional techniques. In this study, DNA-based methodologies were used to examine the relationships within and between two genera of monocentric gut fungi gathered from various geographical locations and host animals. The ribosomal ITS1 sequence from 16 mono- and 4 polycentric isolates was PCR-amplified and sequenced; the sequences obtained were aligned with published sequences and phylogenetic analyses were performed. These analyses clearly differentiate between the two genera and reflect the previously published physiological conclusions that Neocallimastix spp. constitute a more closely related genus than the relatively divergent genus Piromyces. The analyses place two type species N. frontalis and N. hurleyensis together but, contrary to a recent suggestion in the literature, place them apart from the other agreed species N. patriciarum. In situ hybridization and slot-blotting were investigated as potential methods for detection of and differentiation between monocentric gut fungi. DNA slot-blot analysis using ribosomal sequences is able to differentiate between gut fungal genera and thus has considerable potential for use in ecological studies of these organisms.

Characterization of a Neocallimastix patriciarum xylanase gene and its product

A xylanase gene (xynC) isolated from the anaerobic ruminal fungus Neocallimastix patriciarum was characterized. The gene consists of an N-terminal catalytic domain that exhibited homology to family 11 of glycosyl hydrolases, a C-terminal cellulose binding domain (CBD) and a putative dockerin domain in between. Each domain was linked by a short linker domain rich in proline and alanine. Deletion analysis demonstrated that the CBD was essential for optimal xylanase activity of the enzyme, while the putative dockerin domain may not be required for enzyme function.

Expression of a catalytic domain of a Neocallimastix frontalis endoxylanase gene (xyn3) in Kluyveromyces lactis and Penicillium roqueforti

A cDNA fragment encoding the A catalytic domain of the Neocallimastix frontalis endoxylanase XYN3 was amplified and cloned by the polymerase chain reaction technique. The xyn3A DNA fragment was inserted between the Saccharomyces cerevisiae phosphoglycerate kinase gene promoter and terminator sequences on a multicopy episomal plasmid for Kluyveromyces lactis. The XYN3A domain was successfully expressed in K. lactis and functional endoxylanase was secreted by the yeast cells with the K. lactis killer toxin secretion signal. The XYN3A domain was also expressed in a strain of Penicillium roqueforti as a fusion protein (ShBLE::XYN3A) of the phleomycin-resistance gene product and the endoxylanase. Active endoxylanase was efficiently secreted from the fungal cells with the Trichoderma viride cellobiohydrolase (CBH1) secretion signal and processed by a related KEX2 endoprotease of the secretion pathway. Several differently glycosylated forms of the recombinant enzymes were secreted by the yeast and the filamentous fungus.

An acetylxylan esterase and a xylanase expressed from genes cloned from the ruminal fungus Neocallimastix patriciarum act synergistically to degrade acetylated xylans

A Neocallimastit patriciarum acetylxylan esterase (BnaA) was expressed from the cloned gene in Escherichia coli. Purified recombinant BnaA efficiently released acetate from soluble acetylated birchwood xylan (ABX), with a specific activity of 76 U mg-1. In contrast, release of acetate was very inefficient from the insoluble substrates, spear grass and delignified spear grass. Addition of a recombinant xylanase, XynA, also expressed from a cloned N. patriciarum gene, had no effect on the release of acetate from ABX. However, the combination of recombinant BnaA and XynA released more acetate from spear grass and delignified spear grass than did BnaA alone. Significantly more reducing sugar was also released from all three substrates by the combination of recombinant XynA and BnaA than by XynA alone. Thus the extent of digestion of acetylated xylans by XynA appears to be limited by the acetylation. In this system BnaA does not appear to increase the rate of cleavage of insoluble substrates by XynA, but probably allows the release of shorter xylose oligomers from already solubilised acetylated xylan polymers.