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Saris A, Steuten J, Schrijver DP, van Schijndel G, Zwaginga JJ, van Ham SM, ten Brinke A. Inhibition of Dendritic Cell Activation and Modulation of T Cell Polarization by the Platelet Secretome. Front Immunol 2021; 12:631285. [PMID: 33737933 PMCID: PMC7961920 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.631285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Platelet transfusions are a frequently administered therapy for especially hemato-oncological patients with thrombocytopenia. Next to their primary function in hemostasis, currently there is increased attention for the capacity of platelets to affect the function of various cells of the immune system. Here, we investigate the capacity of platelets to immuno-modulate monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDC) as well as primary dendritic cells and effects on subsequent T cell responses. Platelets significantly inhibited pro-inflammatory (IL-12, IL-6, TNFα) and increased anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokine production of moDCs primed with toll-like receptor (TLR)-dependent and TLR-independent stimuli. Transwell assays and ultracentrifugation revealed that a soluble factor secreted by platelets, but not microvesicles, inhibited DC activation. Interestingly, platelet-derived soluble mediators also inhibited cytokine production by human ex vivo stimulated myeloid CD1c+ conventional DC2. Moreover, platelets and platelet-derived soluble mediators inhibited T cell priming and T helper differentiation toward an IFNγ+ Th1 phenotype by moDCs. Overall, these results show that platelets are able to inhibit the pro-inflammatory properties of DCs, and may even induce an anti-inflammatory DC phenotype, with decreased T cell priming capacity by the DC. The results of this study provide more insight in the potential role of platelets in immune modulation, especially in the context of platelet transfusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anno Saris
- Department of Immunopathology, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Infectious Disease, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Juulke Steuten
- Department of Immunopathology, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - David P. Schrijver
- Department of Immunopathology, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Gijs van Schijndel
- Department of Immunopathology, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jaap Jan Zwaginga
- Center for Clinical Transfusion Research, Sanquin Research, Leiden, Netherlands
- Department of Hematology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - S. Marieke van Ham
- Department of Immunopathology, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Anja ten Brinke
- Department of Immunopathology, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Cabezas J, Rojas D, Wong Y, Telleria F, Manriquez J, Mançanares ACF, Rodriguez-Alvarez LL, Castro FO. In vitro preconditioning of equine adipose mesenchymal stem cells with prostaglandin E 2, substance P and their combination changes the cellular protein secretomics and improves their immunomodulatory competence without compromising stemness. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2020; 228:110100. [PMID: 32871408 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2020.110100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) are modern tools in regenerative therapies of humans and animals owed to their immunomodulatory properties, which are activated in a pro-inflammatory environment. Different preconditioning strategies had been devised to enhance the immunomodulatory properties of MSC. In this research, we evaluated the immunological attributes of equine adipose MSC (eAMSC) before and after preconditioning in vitro with prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), substance P (SP), their combination and IFNγ. PGE2/SP was the best combination to keep or enhance the mesodermal lineage differentiation of eAMSC. Alongside with this, preconditioning of eMSC with PGE2 and SP did not affect expression of stemness MSC surface phenotype: CD90+, CD44+, MHC class I+, MHC class II- and CD45-, assessed by cytometry. Both naïve and preconditioned eAMSC expressed genes related with immune properties, such as MHC-I, PTGES, IL6, IL1A, TNFα and IL8 assessed by qPCR. Only TNFα was under expressed in treated cells, while the other markers were either overexpressed or not changed. In no cases MHC-II expression was detected. The antiproliferative effect of preconditioned eAMSC exposed to activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) showed that SP treatment significantly inhibited proliferation of LPS stimulated PBMC. When eAMSC were stimulated with Poly I:C, all the treatments significantly inhibited proliferation of stimulated PBMC (p < 0.05). Direct contact (coculture) between the preconditioned eAMSC and PBMC, induced a shift of significantly more (CD4/CD25/FOXP3)+ T-regulatory PBMC than naïve eAMSC. In the experiments of this research, we investigated the secreted proteomic profile of naïve and preconditioned eAMSC, 42 up-regulated and 40 down-regulated proteins were found in the proteomic assay. Our proteomic data revealed profound changes in the secretory pattern of MSC exposed to different treatments, compared to naïve eAMSC as well as among treatments. In overall, compared to naïve cells, the protein profile of preconditioned cells resembled the mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET). Here we showed that the combined use of PGE2 and SP provoked in overall the highest expression of anti-inflammatory markers as well as lead to an increased acquisition of a T-regulatory phenotype in preconditioned eAMSC without affecting their "stemness".
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Affiliation(s)
- J Cabezas
- Universidad de Concepción, Campus Chillan, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Science, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Animal, Chile.
| | - D Rojas
- Universidad de Concepción, Campus Chillan, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Department of Animal Pathology, Chile.
| | - Y Wong
- Universidad de Concepción, Campus Chillan, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Science, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Animal, Chile.
| | - F Telleria
- Universidad de Concepción, Campus Chillan, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Science, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Animal, Chile.
| | - J Manriquez
- Universidad de Concepción, Campus Chillan, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Science, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Animal, Chile.
| | - A C F Mançanares
- Universidad de Concepción, Campus Chillan, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Science, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Animal, Chile.
| | - L L Rodriguez-Alvarez
- Universidad de Concepción, Campus Chillan, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Science, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Animal, Chile.
| | - F O Castro
- Universidad de Concepción, Campus Chillan, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Science, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Animal, Chile.
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Kim H, Kwon H, Kim S, Kim MK, Botella MA, Yun HS, Kwon C. Synaptotagmin 1 Negatively Controls the Two Distinct Immune Secretory Pathways to Powdery Mildew Fungi in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell Physiol 2016; 57:1133-41. [PMID: 27016097 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcw061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
PEN1, one of the plasma membrane (PM) syntaxins, comprises an immune exocytic pathway by forming the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) complex with SNAP33 and VAMP721/722 in plants. Although this secretory pathway is also involved in plant growth and development, how plants control their exocytic activity is as yet poorly understood. Since constitutive PEN1 cycling between the PM and endocytosed vesicles is critical for its immune activity, we studied here the relationship of PEN1 to synaptotagmin 1 (SYT1) that is known to regulate endocytosis at the PM. Interestingly, syt1 plants showed enhanced disease resistance to the Arabidopsis-adapted Golovinomyces orontii fungus, and elevated protein but not transcript levels of PEN1 Calcium-dependent promotion of PEN1-SYT1 interaction suggests that SYT1 controls defense activities of the PEN1-associated secretory pathway by post-translationally modulating PEN1. Increased PEN1-SYT1 interaction and inhibited PEN1 SNARE complex induction by G. orontii additionally suggest that the adaption of phytopathogens to host plants might partly result from effective suppression of the PEN1-related secretory pathway. Further genetic analyses revealed that SYT1 also regulates the atypical peroxisomal myrosinase PEN2-associated secretory pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeran Kim
- Max-Planck-Institut für Züchtungsforschung, Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, D-50829 Köln, Germany Center for Genome Engineering, Institute for Basic Science, Daejeon 305-811, Korea These authors contributed equally to this work.
| | - Hyeokjin Kwon
- Department of Molecular Biology, Dankook University, Yongin 448-701, Korea These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Soohong Kim
- Department of Molecular Biology, Dankook University, Yongin 448-701, Korea
| | - Mi Kyung Kim
- Department of Molecular Biology, Dankook University, Yongin 448-701, Korea
| | - Miguel A Botella
- Departamento de Biologia Molecular y Bioquimica, Universidad de Malaga, 29071 Malaga, Spain
| | - Hye Sup Yun
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Korea
| | - Chian Kwon
- Department of Molecular Biology, Dankook University, Yongin 448-701, Korea
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Dubaissi E, Rousseau K, Lea R, Soto X, Nardeosingh S, Schweickert A, Amaya E, Thornton DJ, Papalopulu N. A secretory cell type develops alongside multiciliated cells, ionocytes and goblet cells, and provides a protective, anti-infective function in the frog embryonic mucociliary epidermis. Development 2014; 141:1514-25. [PMID: 24598166 PMCID: PMC3957375 DOI: 10.1242/dev.102426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2013] [Accepted: 02/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The larval epidermis of Xenopus is a bilayered epithelium, which is an excellent model system for the study of the development and function of mucosal and mucociliary epithelia. Goblet cells develop in the outer layer while multiciliated cells and ionocytes sequentially intercalate from the inner to the outer layer. Here, we identify and characterise a fourth cell type, the small secretory cell (SSC). We show that the development of these cells is controlled by the transcription factor Foxa1 and that they intercalate into the outer layer of the epidermis relatively late, at the same time as embryonic hatching. Ultrastructural and molecular characterisation shows that these cells have an abundance of large apical secretory vesicles, which contain highly glycosylated material, positive for binding of the lectin, peanut agglutinin, and an antibody to the carbohydrate epitope, HNK-1. By specifically depleting SSCs, we show that these cells are crucial for protecting the embryo against bacterial infection. Mass spectrometry studies show that SSCs secrete a glycoprotein similar to Otogelin, which may form the structural component of a mucus-like protective layer, over the surface of the embryo, and several potential antimicrobial substances. Our study completes the characterisation of all the epidermal cell types in the early tadpole epidermis and reinforces the suitability of this system for the in vivo study of complex epithelia, including investigation of innate immune defences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eamon Dubaissi
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Karine Rousseau
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Matrix Research, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Robert Lea
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
- The Healing Foundation Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Ximena Soto
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Siddarth Nardeosingh
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Axel Schweickert
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Zoology, Garbenstrasse 30, D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Enrique Amaya
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
- The Healing Foundation Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - David J. Thornton
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Matrix Research, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Nancy Papalopulu
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
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Hiroyasu S, Ozawa T, Kobayashi H, Ishii M, Aoyama Y, Kitajima Y, Hashimoto T, Jones JC, Tsuruta D. Bullous pemphigoid IgG induces BP180 internalization via a macropinocytic pathway. Am J Pathol 2013; 182:828-40. [PMID: 23337823 PMCID: PMC3590760 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2012] [Revised: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 11/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Bullous pemphigoid (BP) is an autoimmune blistering skin disease induced by pathogenic autoantibodies against a type II transmembrane protein (BP180, collagen type XVII, or BPAG2). In animal models, BP180 autoantibody-antigen interaction appears insufficient to develop blisters, but involvement of complement and neutrophils is required. However, cultured keratinocytes treated with BP-IgG exhibit a reduction in the adhesive strength and a loss of expression of BP180, suggesting that the autoantibodies directly affect epidermal cell-extracellular matrix integrity. In this study, we explored the consequences of two distinct epithelial cells treated with BP-IgG, particularly the fate of BP180. First, we followed the distribution of green fluorescent protein-tagged BP180 in an epithelial cell line, 804G, and normal human epidermal keratinocytes after autoantibody clustering. After BP-IgG treatment, the adhesive strength of the cells to their substrate was decreased, and BP180 was internalized in both cell types, together with the early endosomal antigen-1. By using various endocytosis inhibitors and a fluid-uptake assay, we demonstrated that BP-IgG-induced BP180 internalization is mediated via a macropinocytic pathway. Moreover, a macropinocytosis inhibitor rescued a BP-IgG-induced reduction in the adhesive strength of the cells from their substrate. The results of this study suggest that BP180 internalization induced by BP-IgG plays an important role in the initiation of disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sho Hiroyasu
- Department of Dermatology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Ozawa
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hiromi Kobayashi
- Department of Dermatology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masamitsu Ishii
- Department of Dermatology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yumi Aoyama
- Department of Dermatology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama, Japan
| | - Yasuo Kitajima
- Division of Dermatology, Kizawa Memorial Hospital, Gifu, Japan
| | - Takashi Hashimoto
- Department of Dermatology, Kurume University School of Medicine, and Kurume University Institute of Cutaneous Cell Biology, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Jonathan C.R. Jones
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Northwestern University the Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Daisuke Tsuruta
- Department of Dermatology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Dermatology, Kurume University School of Medicine, and Kurume University Institute of Cutaneous Cell Biology, Fukuoka, Japan
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Monegal A, Olichon A, Bery N, Filleron T, Favre G, de Marco A. Single domain antibodies with VH hallmarks are positively selected during panning of llama (Lama glama) naïve libraries. Dev Comp Immunol 2012; 36:150-156. [PMID: 21767565 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2011.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Revised: 06/24/2011] [Accepted: 06/26/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Independent variable domains with VH hallmarks have been repeatedly identified in immune and pre-immune VHH libraries. In some cases, stable independent VH domains have been also isolated in mouse and human recombinant antibody repertoires. However, we have come to realize that VHs were selected with a higher efficiency than VHHs during biopanning of a pre-immune (VHH) library. The biochemical and biophysical comparison did not indicate a presence of any feature that would favor the VH binders during the selection process. In contrast, selected VHHs seemed to be more stable than the VHs, ruling out the existence of a thermodynamically - favored VH sub-class. Therefore, we reasoned that a certain degree of thermodynamic instability may be beneficial for both displaying and expression of VH(H)s when the Sec-pathway is used for their secretion to avoid the cytoplasmic trapping of fast-folding polypeptides. Indeed, VHHs, but not VHs, were accumulated at higher concentrations when expressed fused to the dsbA leader peptide, a sequence that drives the linked polypeptides to the co-translational SRP secretion machinery. These data suggest that the thermodynamically favored VHHs can be lost during biopanning, as previously observed for DARPins and in contrast to the recombinant antibodies in scFv format.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Monegal
- Cogentech - Protein Chemistry Unit, IFOM-IEO Campus, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milano, Italy
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Liao Q, Yuan X, Xiao H, Liu C, Lv Z, Zhao Y, Wu Z. Identifying Schistosoma japonicum excretory/secretory proteins and their interactions with host immune system. PLoS One 2011; 6:e23786. [PMID: 21887319 PMCID: PMC3161075 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 07/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Schistosoma japonicum is a major infectious agent of schistosomiasis. It has been reported that large number of proteins excreted and secreted by S. japonicum during its life cycle are important for its infection and survival in definitive hosts. These proteins can be used as ideal candidates for vaccines or drug targets. In this work, we analyzed the protein sequences of S. japonicum and found that compared with other proteins in S. japonicum, excretory/secretory (ES) proteins are generally longer, more likely to be stable and enzyme, more likely to contain immune-related binding peptides and more likely to be involved in regulation and metabolism processes. Based on the sequence difference between ES and non-ES proteins, we trained a support vector machine (SVM) with much higher accuracy than existing approaches. Using this SVM, we identified 191 new ES proteins in S. japonicum, and further predicted 7 potential interactions between these ES proteins and human immune proteins. Our results are useful to understand the pathogenesis of schistosomiasis and can serve as a new resource for vaccine or drug targets discovery for anti-schistosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Liao
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
- Bioinformatics Research Group, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Information Processing, Institute of Computing Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiongying Yuan
- Bioinformatics Research Group, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Information Processing, Institute of Computing Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui Xiao
- Bioinformatics Research Group, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Information Processing, Institute of Computing Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Changning Liu
- Bioinformatics Research Group, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Information Processing, Institute of Computing Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhiyue Lv
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Zhao
- Bioinformatics Research Group, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Information Processing, Institute of Computing Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail: (YZ); (ZW)
| | - Zhongdao Wu
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail: (YZ); (ZW)
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Abstract
Interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) is a potent proinflammatory cytokine that initiates and amplifies a wide variety of effects associated with innate immunity and host responses to microbial invasion and tissue injury. Production and release of IL-1beta are stimulated by either pathogen-associated molecular pattern molecules (PAMPs) or damage-associated molecular pattern molecules (DAMPs) and involve several steps. IL-1beta is first synthesized as biologically inactive pro-IL-1beta, then processed into mature, biologically active IL-1beta by caspase-1, and subsequently released into the extracellular milieu. Whereas a large body of recent publications has greatly increased our knowledge of the mechanisms involved in production and processing of IL-1beta, we are only beginning to understand mechanisms of IL-1beta secretion. This review highlights the different models of a non-classical secretory pathway used by monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells to export the leaderless cytokine IL-1beta. In particular, five different release mechanisms have been suggested, namely (i) exocytosis of IL-1beta-containing secretory lysosomes, (ii) release of IL-1beta from shed plasma membrane microvesicles, (iii) fusion of multivesicular bodies with the plasma membrane and subsequent release of IL-1beta-containing exosomes, (iv) export of IL-1beta through the plasma membrane using specific membrane transporters, and (v) release of IL-1beta upon cell lysis. Reasons for the diversity of IL-1beta secretory pathways remain to be elucidated. A better understanding of IL-1beta release mechanisms is of great therapeutic relevance and may help in the development of strategies aimed at reducing the severity of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Eder
- Division of Basic Medical Sciences, St. George's, University of London, Cranmer Terrace, Tooting, London SW17 0RE, UK.
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