Infant direction discrimination thresholds

Although adults can detect direction differences as small as 1 arc degree, the ability of infants to discriminate direction of motion is less clear. This study measures the precision with which 6-, 12-, and 18-week-old infants discriminate direction of motion. Infants viewed random dot kinematograms in which a direction difference between the target and background dots defined a circular target. The target was then placed into continuous motion. An FPL paradigm was used to assess infants' preference for the target as a function of the direction difference between the target and background dots. Direction discrimination thresholds with a moving target were indeterminate at 6 weeks of age, 22 degrees at 12 weeks of age and 17 degrees at 18 weeks of age. This precision was maintained across different testing conditions. However, performance dropped markedly when dot motion was presented within a flickering stationary target. It was concluded that infants can make relatively fine discriminations of motion direction if given an engaging stimulus.

Infants' sensitivity to statistical distributions of motion direction and speed

Adults combine different local motions to form a global percept of motion. This study explores the origins of this process by testing how perturbations of local motion influence infants' sensitivity to global motion. Infants at 6-, 12-, and 18-weeks of age viewed random dots moving with a gaussian distribution of dot directions defined by a mean of 0 degree (rightward) or 180 degrees (leftward) and a standard deviation (SD) of 0, 34, or 68 degrees. A well-practiced observer used infants' optokinetic responses to judge the direction of stimulus motion. Infants were studied both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Direction discrimination was relatively high at all ages when the SD was 0 degree. When the SD was 34 or 68 degrees, performance declined with age. Adult performance was nearly perfect at these SDs. A similar developmental pattern was found with distributions of dot speed. The decline in infant performance is consistent with the development of both neural tuning and receptive field size. The subsequent improvement by adulthood suggests the development of additional processes such as long-range interactions.

Infants' perception of object unity in translating and rotating displays

In 3 experiments, the authors examined the sensitivity of infants to the unity of a partly occluded moving rod undergoing translation, rotation, or oscillation. Four-month-old infants were sensitive to the unity of the partly occluded rod when it translated, but not when it rotated, behind an occluder. Six-month-old infants perceived the rotating rod as continuing behind the occluder, but they did not perceive the unity of a rod that oscillated back and forth behind the occluder. Finally, 6-month-old infants showed an ambiguous response to a rotating rod when the shape of the occluder was changed from rectangular to round. These findings suggest that all types of common motion are not equivalent for specifying infants' perceptions of occluded objects. Additional factors should be considered that take into account the information specified by different types of motion and by different conditions at the intersection of the occluder and the object.

Infants' perception of object unity in translating and rotating displays

In 3 experiments, the authors examined the sensitivity of infants to the unity of a partly occluded moving rod undergoing translation, rotation, or oscillation. Four-month-old infants were sensitive to the unity of the partly occluded rod when it translated, but not when it rotated, behind an occluder. Six-month-old infants perceived the rotating rod as continuing behind the occluder, but they did not perceive the unity of a rod that oscillated back and forth behind the occluder. Finally, 6-month-old infants showed an ambiguous response to a rotating rod when the shape of the occluder was changed from rectangular to round. These findings suggest that all types of common motion are not equivalent for specifying infants' perceptions of occluded objects. Additional factors should be considered that take into account the information specified by different types of motion and by different conditions at the intersection of the occluder and the object.

Perception-action coupling in the development of visual control of posture

In this investigation of developmental changes in the coordination of perceived optical flow and postural responses, 4 age groups of infants (5-, 7-, 9-, and 13-month-olds) were tested while seated on a force plate in a "moving room." During each trial the walls oscillated in an anteroposterior direction for 12 s, and the postural sway of the infant was measured. The results revealed that infants perceived the frequency and amplitude of the optical flow and scaled their postural responses to the visual information. This scaling was present even before infants could sit without support, but it showed considerable improvement during the period when infants learn to sit. Taken together, these results suggest that the visuomotor coordination necessary for controlling sitting is functional prior to the onset of independent sitting but becomes more finely tuned with experience.

Perception-action coupling in the development of visual control of posture

In this investigation of developmental changes in the coordination of perceived optical flow and postural responses, 4 age groups of infants (5-, 7-, 9-, and 13-month-olds) were tested while seated on a force plate in a "moving room." During each trial the walls oscillated in an anteroposterior direction for 12 s, and the postural sway of the infant was measured. The results revealed that infants perceived the frequency and amplitude of the optical flow and scaled their postural responses to the visual information. This scaling was present even before infants could sit without support, but it showed considerable improvement during the period when infants learn to sit. Taken together, these results suggest that the visuomotor coordination necessary for controlling sitting is functional prior to the onset of independent sitting but becomes more finely tuned with experience.

Multiple developmental pathways for motion processing

PURPOSE

Image flow across the retina can be classified into several types of motion specifying information about spatial layout and self-movement. Adults process these types of motion via different functional pathways. This article investigates the development of these functional pathways.

METHODS

The development of sensitivity to several classes of motion is reviewed and correlated with the neural development of the visual system.

RESULTS

Different types of motion processing develop at different rates. The clearest example is that sensitivity to direction of translation shows an earlier onset and a different developmental trajectory than sensitivity to shearing motion. In addition, the onset of sensitivity to translation direction and shearing motion coincides with the development of striate laminae 5/6 and 4B, respectively. This earlier development of the deeper striate laminae is also consistent with reports of neonatal direction discrimination in displays undergoing optical expansion and rotation.

CONCLUSIONS

Sensitivity to at least two types of motion, translation and shearing, develop in different ways and continue to be processed differently in adulthood. The differential development of sensitivity to these motion types coincides with the laminar development of striate cortex. It thus follows that the nonuniform development of the motion-processing system must be recognized to assess infant motion sensitivity correctly.

Infants' sensitivity to uniform motion

Uniform motion across the retina is a powerful cue to the perception of self-motion. In spite of its importance for adaptive functioning, little is known about the early development of uniform motion sensitivity. Six-, 12-, and 18-week-old infants viewed random-dot kinematograms depicting leftward or rightward uniform motion. The display induced optokinetic nystagmus (OKN), which a trained observer used to judge the direction of target motion. Both speed of motion and directional coherence were varied to obtain independent motion detection thresholds. Infants of all three ages could detect uniform motion, and their detection thresholds were constant during this period of development. This is in contrast to the clear improvements in relative motion sensitivity noted previously between 6 and 18 weeks of age with a preferential looking (PL) paradigm. The developmental differences between these studies may result from: (1) separate mechanisms for detecting uniform (absolute) and differential (relative) motion; or (2) separate mechanisms underlying OKN and PL response measures.

Origins and early development of perception, action, and representation

Research relevant to the origins and early development of two functionally dissociable perceptual systems is summarized. One system is concerned with the perceptual control and guidance of actions, the other with the perception and recognition of objects and events. perceptually controlled actions function in real time and are modularly organized. Infants perceive where they are and what they are doing. By contrast, research on object recognition suggests that even young infants represent some of the defining features and physical constraints that specify the identity and continuity of objects. Different factors contribute to developmental changes within the two systems; it is difficult to generalize from one response system to another; and neither perception, action, nor representation qualifies as ontogenetically privileged. All three processes develop from birth as a function of intrinsic processing constraints and experience.

Directional bias in the perception of translating patterns

Recent findings suggest that the visual system is biased by its past stimulation to detect one direction of motion over others. Three experiments were designed to investigate whether this bias is mediated by the direction or by the velocity of the past stimulation, and whether this bias is offset by contradictory pattern or depth information. Observers were presented with two solid or random-dot patterns that moved across a display screen in antiphase. As the two patterns reached the center of the screen, they became superimposed in such a way that their subsequent directions were ambiguous. Results from experiment 1 showed that the probability of perceiving these patterns as continuing to move in the same directions was significantly greater when they moved at a constant velocity than when they moved at a variable velocity. Results from experiments 2 and 3 revealed that this directional bias was reversed only gradually as an increasing amount of contradictory pattern information was introduced, but that this reversal was quite abrupt when a relatively small amount of contradictory depth information was introduced. Collectively, these results suggest that a directional bias in the perception of moving patterns is mediated not only by the direction of the previous stimulation, but also by the velocity of that stimulation. Moreover, the analyses of pattern and motion information appear relatively independent during the early stages of visual processing, but the analyses of depth and motion information appear considerably more interdependent.

Locomotor status and the development of spatial search skills

The principal objective of this experiment was to investigate whether previous reports of a relation between locomotor status and stage 4 object permanence performance generalized to performance on a different object localization task. A secondary objective was to evaluate the contribution of visual tracking as a mediating variable in the relation between locomotor experience and search performance. Precrawling (n = 20), crawling (n = 10), and creeping (n = 18) infants (M = 33 weeks old) were tested using a search task in which either they or the hiding containers were rotated 180 degrees before search was permitted. The results revealed that locomotor status was related to search performance following a displacement of the infant, but not following a displacement of the containers. Moreover, visual tracking of the correct container was not related to locomotor status, even though it was related to search performance. These findings suggest that the effects of locomotor experience on infants' search performance are quite specific and are mediated by a variety of factors that do not necessarily generalize across search tasks.

Image statistics and the perception of apparent motion

The short- and long-range apparent motion processes are discussed in terms of the statistical properties of images. It is argued that the short-range process, exemplified by the random-dot kinematogram, is primarily sensitive to the dipole statistics, whereas the long-range process, exemplified by illusory occlusion, is treated by the visual system primarily in terms of the tripole and higher statistical correlation functions. The studies incorporate the balanced dot, which is a unique stimulus element that permits high pass filtering while preserving detailed positional information. Low spatial frequencies are shown to be critical for texture segregation in random-dot kinematograms, independent of the grain size or number density of texture elements. Illusory path perception in the long-range process is shown not to require low spatial frequencies, but is sensitive rather to global temporal phase coherency. These results are interpreted in terms of the respective roles of the power and phase spectra in perceptual organization. The construction of balanced dots is discussed in detail.

Image statistics and the perception of apparent motion

The short- and long-range apparent motion processes are discussed in terms of the statistical properties of images. It is argued that the short-range process, exemplified by the random-dot kinematogram, is primarily sensitive to the dipole statistics, whereas the long-range process, exemplified by illusory occlusion, is treated by the visual system primarily in terms of the tripole and higher statistical correlation functions. The studies incorporate the balanced dot, which is a unique stimulus element that permits high pass filtering while preserving detailed positional information. Low spatial frequencies are shown to be critical for texture segregation in random-dot kinematograms, independent of the grain size or number density of texture elements. Illusory path perception in the long-range process is shown not to require low spatial frequencies, but is sensitive rather to global temporal phase coherency. These results are interpreted in terms of the respective roles of the power and phase spectra in perceptual organization. The construction of balanced dots is discussed in detail.

Converging operations revisited: assessing what infants perceive using discrimination measures

The study of visual perception in human infants is confronted by a number of special problems arising from the inaccessibility of verbal reports. In this paper, we discuss the experimental strategy of converging operations in the context of investigating the phenomenal experience of infants. The goal of this strategy is to logically and empirically delimit alternative explanations for a given behavior. Knowledge about the mature functioning of a perceptual competence, as well as knowledge about its developmental course, constrains the selection of viable explanations, but cannot produce a unique interpretation. This goal is pursued through the implementation of an iterative strategy in which competing interpretations are tested until only one plausible alternative remains. A series of experiments investigating infants' sensitivity to biomechanical motions are reviewed as a way of illustrating how this methodology is operationalized.

Perception of biomechanical motions by infants: implementation of various processing constraints

Geometry informs us that there exist a large number of possible connectivity patterns consistent with a point-light display of a person walking. Yet there is only one pattern consistent with a "stick figure" representation of the human form, and that pattern is uniquely specified by those pairwise connections that remain locally rigid. In this study, sensitivity to local rigidity in biomechanical displays was investigated in 3- and 5-month-old infants. The results of Experiment 1 revealed that by 5 months of age, infants discriminate a locally rigid point-light walker display from one in which local rigidity is perturbed. In Experiment 2 we tested infants' sensitivity to the same stimuli when those stimuli were inverted. Contrary to the preceding experiment, the results revealed no evidence of discrimination. Taken together, these findings suggest that infants are sensitive to local rigidity in biomechanical displays but that this sensitivity is orientation specific. Possible mechanisms for this specificity are discussed in the context of additional constraints on the processing of biomechanical displays.

New directions in the study of early experience

In this commentary, we review Greenough, Black, and Wallace's conceptual framework for understanding the effects of early experience, and illustrate the applicability of their model with recent data on the consequences for animals and human infants of the acquisition of self-produced locomotion.

The development of infant sensitivity to biomechanical motions

3 experiments were conducted to examine infant sensitivity at 20, 30, and 36 weeks of age to the 3-dimensional structure of a human form specified through biomechanical motions. All 3 experiments manipulated occlusion information in computer-generated arrays of point-lights moving as if attached to the major joints and head of a person walking. These displays are readily recognized as persons by adults when occlusion information is present, but not when it is absent or inconsistent with the implicit structure of the human body. Converging findings from Experiments 1 and 2 suggested that 36-week-old infants were sensitive to the presence of occlusion information in point-light walker displays; neither 20- nor 30-week-old infants showed any sensitivity to this information. The results of Experiment 3 revealed further that 36-week-old infants were sensitive to whether or not the pattern of occlusion was consistent with the implicit form of the human body, but only when the displays were presented in an upright orientation. These findings are interpreted as suggesting that infants, by 36 weeks of age, are extracting fundamental properties necessary for interpreting a point-light display as a person.

Infant sensitivity to figural coherence in biomechanical motions

Two experiments assessed infant sensitivity to figural coherence in point-light displays moving as if attached to the major joints of a walking person. Experiment 1 tested whether 3- and 5-month-old infants could discriminate between upright and inverted versions of the walker in both moving and static displays. Using an infant-control habituation paradigm, it was found that both ages discriminated the moving but not the static displays. Experiment 2 was designed to clarify whether or not structural invariants were extracted from these displays. The results revealed that (1) moving point-light displays with equivalent motions but different topographic relations were discriminated while (2) static versions were not, and (3) arrays that varied in the amount of motion present in different portions of the display were also not discriminated. These results are interpreted as indicating that young infants are sensitive to figural coherence in displays of biomechanical motion.

Development of visual organization: the perception of subjective contours

This study examines the development of infants' sensitivity to the organization of a subjective-contour stimulus array. 5- and 7-month-olds were sequentially shown 3 stimulus arrays of elements, only 1 of which was capable of producing subjective contours. Only the orientational relations among elements was varied. An infant habituation control procedure was used to test infants' abilities to discriminate these arrays. The results indicated that (1) only 7-month-olds showed consistent differential responsiveness to changes from an illusory array to a nonillusory array or vice versa, (2) 5-month-olds showed a weaker tendency to respond similarly and only when they had prolonged experience with the illusory array, and (3) neither age group showed much response recovery to a change from one nonillusory array to another. These findings are interpreted as indicating that infants can perceive subjective contours. However, the age of this accomplishment probably varies with both the characteristics of the array and the abilities of the observer.