HIV risk behavior and psychological correlates among native American women: an exploratory investigation

Native American women are at increased risk for HIV infection, but few studies have studied this threat. To address this gap in the literature, we assessed HIV risk behavior and explored the hypothesized psychological antecedents of risk behavior in 53 Native American women. Survey results indicated that women's HIV-related knowledge was incomplete and many women still held misconceptions about HIV. One third of the sample reported having two to five sexual partners in the past 5 years, and 30% of the women reported alcohol use prior to sexual intercourse. Women who were classified at higher risk, that is, who did not use condoms consistently, felt less vulnerable to HIV and were less ready to change their risky sexual behaviors compared with their lower-risk counterparts. These findings indicate that Native American women are at risk for HIV infection and can no longer be neglected by those seeking to prevent HIV infections. Culturally congruent and gender-specific interventions that provide information and behavioral skills to Native American women as well as increase their motivation to adopt safer sexual behaviors are needed.

HIV prevention in single, urban women: condom-use readiness

OBJECTIVE

To understand women's readiness to use condoms and their perceived pros and cons for condom use.

DESIGN

Comparative, descriptive design guided by the Transtheoretical Model.

SETTING

Data were collected at two urban primary health care centers in western New York.

PARTICIPANTS

364 single urban women with steady (main) or other (casual, concurrent, multiple, new) sexual partners. Most participants were young (mean age of 27 years), economically disadvantaged women of color.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Each participant completed an anonymous questionnaire that included items for the stage of change algorithm, decisional balance of the pros and cons of condom use, sexual history, and HIV risk information.

RESULTS

Most women were in the early stages of change (not intending to use condoms), but those with other partners were further along in the stages of change for condom use than those with steady partners. The pros or advantages of condom use differed for these women depending on partner type. The change in the balance between the pros and cons occurred as theoretically predicted for women with steady and other partners.

CONCLUSION

Effectiveness of HIV prevention interventions for women may be enhanced if they are tailored to both readiness to change and partner type.

Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight

The human stress response has been characterized, both physiologically and behaviorally, as "fight-or-flight." Although fight-or-flight may characterize the primary physiological responses to stress for both males and females, we propose that, behaviorally, females' responses are more marked by a pattern of "tend-and-befriend." Tending involves nurturant activities designed to protect the self and offspring that promote safety and reduce distress; befriending is the creation and maintenance of social networks that may aid in this process. The biobehavioral mechanism that underlies the tend-and-befriend pattern appears to draw on the attachment-caregiving system, and neuroendocrine evidence from animal and human studies suggests that oxytocin, in conjunction with female reproductive hormones and endogenous opioid peptide mechanisms, may be at its core. This previously unexplored stress regulatory system has manifold implications for the study of stress.

Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight

The human stress response has been characterized, both physiologically and behaviorally, as "fight-or-flight." Although fight-or-flight may characterize the primary physiological responses to stress for both males and females, we propose that, behaviorally, females' responses are more marked by a pattern of "tend-and-befriend." Tending involves nurturant activities designed to protect the self and offspring that promote safety and reduce distress; befriending is the creation and maintenance of social networks that may aid in this process. The biobehavioral mechanism that underlies the tend-and-befriend pattern appears to draw on the attachment-caregiving system, and neuroendocrine evidence from animal and human studies suggests that oxytocin, in conjunction with female reproductive hormones and endogenous opioid peptide mechanisms, may be at its core. This previously unexplored stress regulatory system has manifold implications for the study of stress.

Reinterpreting the empathy-altruism relationship: when one into one equals oneness

Important features of the self-concept can be located outside of the individual and inside close or related others. The authors use this insight to reinterpret data previously said to support the empathy-altruism model of helping, which asserts that empathic concern for another results in selflessness and true altruism. That is, they argue that the conditions that lead to empathic concern also lead to a greater sense of self-other overlap, raising the possibility that helping under these conditions is not selfless but is also directed toward the self. In 3 studies, the impact of empathic concern on willingness to help was eliminated when oneness--a measure of perceived self-other overlap--was considered. Path analyses revealed further that empathic concern increased helping only through its relation to perceived oneness, thereby throwing the empathy-altruism model into question. The authors suggest that empathic concern affects helping primarily as an emotional signal of oneness.

Post-exercise analgesia: replication and extension

This study was designed to investigate whether post-exercise analgesia occurs following an ad lib exercise routine. All of the 17 male participants exercised on a regular basis. In an exercise setting (student gymnasium) they participated in 20 min of self-selected exercise, while in the neutral setting (laboratory) they rested quietly for 20 min. Pain was induced via the gross pressure device. Pain threshold and pain tolerance were measured twice, with an interval of 20 min, in both the exercise and the neutral setting. Pain threshold was stable in the exercise setting. A significant increase in pain tolerance followed the 20 min bout of exercise, indicating a post-exercise analgesic response. These results support the prediction that the analgesic effect of exercise is not limited to controlled experimental conditions, but generalizes to naturally occurring situations.