Retinoids enhance glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis of T cells by facilitating glucocorticoid receptor-mediated transcription

Glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis of thymocytes is one of the first recognized forms of programmed cell death. It was shown to require gene activation induced by the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) translocated into the nucleus following ligand binding. In addition, the necessity of the glucocorticoid-induced, but transcription-independent phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) has also been shown. Here we report that retinoic acids, physiological ligands for the nuclear retinoid receptors, enhance glucocorticoid-induced death of mouse thymocytes both in vitro and in vivo. The effect is mediated by retinoic acid receptor (RAR) alpha/retinoid X receptor (RXR) heterodimers, and occurs when both RARα and RXR are ligated by retinoic acids. We show that the ligated RARα/RXR interacts with the ligated GR, resulting in an enhanced transcriptional activity of the GR. The mechanism through which this interaction promotes GR-mediated transcription does not require DNA binding of the retinoid receptors and does not alter the phosphorylation status of Ser232, known to regulate the transcriptional activity of GR. Phosphorylation of PI-PLC was not affected. Besides thymocytes, retinoids also promoted glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis of various T-cell lines, suggesting that they could be used in the therapy of glucocorticoid-sensitive T-cell malignancies.

Expression of invasion-related extracellular matrix molecules in human glioblastoma versus intracerebral lung adenocarcinoma metastasis

Tumor cell invasion into the surrounding brain tissue is mainly responsible for the failure of radical surgical resection, with tumor recurrence in the form of microdisseminated disease. Extracellular matrix (ECM)-related molecules and their receptors predominantly participate in the invasion process, including cell adhesion to the surrounding microenvironment and cell migration. The extent of infiltration of the healthy brain by malignant tumors strongly depends on the tumor cell type. Malignant gliomas show much more intensive peritumoral invasion than do metastatic tumors. In this study, the mRNA expression of 30 invasion-related molecules (twenty-one ECM components, two related receptors, and seven ECM-related enzymes) was investigated by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Fresh frozen human tissue samples from glioblastoma (GBM), intracerebral lung adenocarcinoma metastasis, and normal brain were evaluated. Significant differences were established for 24 of the 30 molecules. To confirm our results at the protein level, immunohistochemical analysis of seven molecules was performed (agrin, neurocan, syndecan, versican, matrix metalloproteinase 2 [MMP-2], MMP-9, and hyaluronan). Determining the differences in the levels of invasion-related molecules for tumors of different origins can help to identify the exact molecular mechanisms that facilitate peritumoral infiltration by glioblastoma cells. These results should allow the selection of target molecules for potential chemotherapeutic agents directed against highly invasive malignant gliomas.

The c-Fes family of protein-tyrosine kinases

The human c-fes protooncogene encodes a protein-tyrosine kinase (c-Fes) distinct from c-Src, c-Abl and other nonreceptor tyrosine kinases. Although originally identified as the cellular homolog of several transforming retroviral oncoproteins, Fes was later found to exhibit strong expression in myeloid hematopoietic cells and to play a direct role in their differentiation. Recent work has shown that Fes exhibits a more widespread expression pattern in both developing and adult tissues, suggesting a general physiological function for this kinase and its closely related homolog, Fer. This review highlights the unique aspects of Fes structure, regulation, and function that set it apart from other tyrosine kinase families.

Transcriptional regulation of the TGF-beta 2 gene in choriocarcinoma cells and breast carcinoma cells: differential utilization of Cis-regulatory elements

Previous studies have shown that the transcription of the TGF-beta 2 gene is controlled by at least one negative and two positive regulatory regions in differentiated cells derived from both embryonal carcinoma cells and embryonic stem cells. The use of TGF-beta 2 promoter/reporter gene constructs has also identified a CRE/ATF motif near the TATA box that appears to heavily influence the transcription of the TGF-beta 2 gene. In this study, two choriocarcinoma cell lines, JAR and JEG-3, and the breast cancer cell line, MCF-7, were used to determine whether differences exist in the transcriptional regulation of the TGF-beta 2 gene. We demonstrated that both similarities and differences exist in the transcriptional regulation of this gene. Common to all cells examined to date, the positive regulatory region just upstream of the TATA box contains an essential CRE/ATF motif that binds at least one transcription factor, ATF-1, in gel mobility shift assays. However, we did not detect ATF-2 binding to this site with any of the nuclear extracts used. We also determined that the effect of the region between -187 and -78 (relative to the transcription start site) is cell type dependent. Previous studies have shown that this region acts to reduce the activity of the TGF-beta 2 promoter in differentiated cells derived from embryonal carcinoma cells and embryonic stem cells. In direct contrast, this region acts as a strong positive regulatory region in JAR, JEC-3, and MCF-7 cells. The mechanisms responsible for these differing effects remain to be established. Interestingly, this region does not appear to contain sequence motifs that bind known transcription factors. Thus, this region is likely to bind one or more novel transcription factors or contain novel recognition sites for known transcription factors.

Transcription of the transforming growth factor-beta2 gene is dependent on an E-box located between an essential cAMP response element/activating transcription factor motif and the TATA box of the gene

Transforming growth factor-beta2 (TGF-beta2) is an important regulator of cell proliferation and differentiation; however, its transcriptional regulation is not well understood. Here we report characterization of an essential E-box motif, positioned at -50/-45 between a previously described functional cAMP response element/activating transcription factor site and the TATA box of the human TGF-beta2 promoter. By site-directed mutagenesis, we demonstrate that this E-box motif is necessary for the promoter activity, not only in differentiated cells derived from embryonal carcinoma cells, but also in choriocarcinoma cells and in MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells. We also demonstrate that the transcription factors USF1 and USF2 bind to this E-box motif in vitro when nuclear extracts from each of these cell lines are examined by gel retardation assays. Moreover, using a dominant-negative USF2 protein, we show that USF proteins are critical for TGF-beta2 promoter activity in vivo. The importance of the E-box motif described in this study is supported by the presence of an E-box motif in the same position in the chicken TGF-beta2 gene promoter.

Appearance of nuclear protease activity after embryonal carcinoma cells undergo differentiation

Proteolytic systems are involved via multiple mechanisms in the regulation of gene expression, including tightly controlled metabolism of transcription factors. In this study, we demonstrate that differentiation of mouse embryonal carcinoma cells to parietal endoderm-like cells is accompanied by the appearance of nuclear protease activity. Interestingly, this nuclear-associated protease activity is not observed in the visceral endoderm-like cell line, PSA-5E, or in the differentiated cells derived from both mouse embryonic stem cells and the human embryonal carcinoma cell line NT2/D1. We also determined that this differentiation-associated nuclear protease activity causes proteolysis of a wide range of different transcription factors, including ATF-1, Sp1, NF-YA and B, and octamer-binding proteins Oct-1 and Oct-3. Based on the effects of specific inhibitors, the nuclear protease(s) can be classified as a cysteine protease; however, lack of inhibition by calpastatin and EGTA distinguishes this protease activity from the calpain family of proteases. Given the properties of the differentiation-associated nuclear protease(s), we discuss the possibility that this protease(s) plays a role in the metabolism of transcription factors during the differentiation of specific embryonic cells.

Phosphorylation and DNA binding of the octamer binding transcription factor Oct-3

Phosphorylation influences DNA binding and transactivator capabilities of multiple transcription factors. In this study, we demonstrate that the POU-domain transcription factor, Oct-3, can be phosphorylated in vivo. In addition, we show that in COS-1 cells Oct-3 is phosphorylated exclusively on serine residues. Lastly, we provide evidence that phosphorylation is not required for Oct-3 binding to DNA and treatment of Oct-3 with calf intestinal alkaline phosphatase does not influence its ability to bind DNA.

Cis-regulatory elements and transcription factors involved in the regulation of the transforming growth factor-beta 2 gene

Embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells and embryonic stem (ES) cells provide useful model systems for studying differentiation during early mammalian development. Previous studies have demonstrated that differentiation of two restricted mouse EC cell lines is accompanied by activation of the TGF-beta 2 gene. Moreover, one negative and two positive regulatory regions upstream of the transcription start site were identified, which appear to play key roles in the transcriptional regulation of the human TGF-beta 2 gene. In this report, we demonstrate that the same three regulatory regions strongly influence the activity of the TGF-beta 2 promoter in differentiated cells derived from the multipotent human EC cell line, NT2/D1, and from the murine totipotent ES cell line, CCE. We also determined that the same three regions are active in the regulation of the TGF-beta 2 gene in the murine parietal endoderm-like cell line, PYS-2. However, an additional negative regulatory region appears to contribute to the regulation of the TGF-beta 2 gene in PYS-2 cells. Last, mutation of a CRE/ATF element located just upstream of the transcription start site of the TGF-beta 2 gene reduces significantly the activity of the TGF-beta 2 promoter in the differentiated cells. However, in contrast to our previous findings, our gel mobility shift analyses demonstrate that this CRE/ATF element is bound by similar proteins in nuclear extracts prepared from undifferentiated and differentiated mouse EC cells as well as from undifferentiated human EC cells.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Regulation of the transforming growth factor-beta 2 gene promoter in embryonal carcinoma cells and their differentiated cells: differential utilization of transcription factors

Previous studies demonstrated that differentiation of embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells increases the expression of the TGF-beta 2 gene and identified a CRE/ATF-like motif in the TGF-beta 2 promoter that is necessary for its activity. This suggested that differentiation may increase the transcription of this gene by differential binding of transcription factors to the CRE/ATF-like motif. To test this possibility, we performed gel mobility shift analysis using double-stranded oligodeoxynucleotides containing the TGF-beta 2 CRE/ATF-like motif and nuclear extracts prepared from F9 EC cells and F9-differentiated cells. We determined that the DNA/protein complexes formed by the EC nuclear extracts, but not the complexes formed by differentiated cell nuclear extracts, are recognized and supershifted by an ATF-1 specific antibody. This observation is consistent with our Western immunoblot analysis that detects AFT-1 in the EC cells, but not in their differentiated counterparts. In addition, we provide evidence that protein phosphorylation influences the formation of complexes between F9 nuclear proteins and the CRE/ATF-like motif. Together, our studies identify a likely role for the CRE/ATF-like motif in the regulation of TGF-beta 2 and suggest that this site binds one set of nuclear proteins in EC cells, where the gene is not expressed, and a different set of nuclear proteins in the differentiated cells, where the gene is expressed.