Development and Psychometric Properties of the Caregiver Burden Scale in Polish Caregivers of Stroke Patients

Purpose

Most stroke patients require long-term care of their family members. Excessive care burden entails several negative consequences; therefore, the severity of the burden should be periodically assessed. For this purpose, valid multidimensional measures are needed. Our study, which is a part of a larger research project, aims to translate and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Polish Caregiver Burden Scale (CBS) in relation to construct validity and internal consistency in caregivers of the patients after stroke.

Patients and Methods

The sample of this cross-sectional observational study consisted of 366 informal caregivers to consecutive first-ever stroke survivors. The five-factor Polish CBS and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) were administered during the home visits at three to six months after patients’ hospitalisation. Exploratory (EFA), confirmatory (CFA) factor analyses and a net analysis were performed to investigate the internal structure and a factorial construct validity of the CBS. Correlation analyses between the CBS and the HADS were carried out to examine convergent validity. Cronbach’s alpha and item-total correlation were applied to assess internal consistency.

Results

Three out of five factors identified by EFA were similar to the original indices of the CBS, while the remaining two deviated from the original structure of the CBS. The CFA five-factor model represented an acceptable fit (confirmatory fit index, CFI = 0.96, root mean square error, RMSEA = 0.04) but only after a modification. All subscale scores of the CBS were positively correlated with the HADS, supporting the convergent validity. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the overall scale (0.92) and all subscales (0.72–0.87) except one (0.69) and item-total correlation results indicated good internal consistency.

Conclusion

The Polish version of the CBS showed acceptable internal consistency and good convergent validity. Factorial validity and structural integrity were partially supported. The interrelationships between the CBS subdomains, their partial mutual contamination, and the scale’s non-orthogonal structure should be considered when interpreting the results of further studies using this version of the scale.

Depressive symptoms in stroke patients treated and non-treated with intravenous thrombolytic therapy: a 1-year follow-up study

INTRODUCTION

This is a prospective study, first to compare the frequency of depressive symptoms in stroke survivors treated, and non-treated, with intravenous thrombolysis and second, to explore relationships between post-stroke depression (PSD) and stroke treatment modalities, taking into account other possible determinants of PSD, including post-traumatic stress symptoms.

METHODS

Groups of 73 thrombolysed and 73 non-thrombolysed patients matched for age and gender were examined at 3 and 12 months after discharge. PSD was assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory. Post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), disability and social support were assessed with the Impact of Event Scale-Revised, the Barthel Index and the Berlin Social Support Scale.

RESULTS

At 3 months, PSD was present in 23.3% of the thrombolysed and 31.5% in the non-thrombolysed groups (p = 0.265). At 12 months, the frequencies were 29.2 and 20.6% (p = 0.229). Logistic regression of the combined group of thrombolysed and non-thrombolysed patients indicated that at 3 months, the adjusted predictors of PSD were disability (OR 24.35), presence of PTSS (OR 9.32), low social support (OR 3.68) and non-thrombolytic treatment (OR 3.19). At 12 months, the predictors were disability (OR 15.78) and low education (OR 3.61).

LIMITATIONS

The use of a questionnaire for the detection of depression, the relatively small sample size and a significant drop-out rate could limit the interpretation of these results.

CONCLUSIONS

(1) Thrombolysed and non-thrombolysed stroke survivors had similar frequency of depressive symptoms although the thrombolysed patients had more severe neurological deficits in the acute phase. It can be assumed that if thrombolysis had not been used, depressive symptoms would have been more frequent. (2) Lack of the rt-PA treatment was associated with three-time greater odds of screening for PSD at 3 months post-stroke, after adjustment for other PSD correlates. (3) Therefore, thrombolytic therapy seems to have a positive, but indirect, effect on patients' mood, especially in the first months after stroke. (4) All stroke patients, irrespective of the method of treatment, should be monitored for the presence of depression.

Psychosocial functioning in relation to symptomatic remission: A longitudinal study of first episode schizophrenia

OBJECTIVES

The aims of the study were: (1) to evaluate longitudinally symptomatic remission in first-episode (FE) schizophrenia, (2) to describe symptoms, social functioning and quality of life (Qol) in relation to remission status, and (3) to determine the long-term outcome of schizophrenia and its early predictors.

METHODS

Sixty-four patients were assessed 1 month after a first hospitalization (T1), 12 months (T2), 4-6 years (T3), and 7-11 years (T4) after T1. The patients were allocated to three remission groups according to their remission status over the whole observation period, e.g. stable remission (SR), unstable remission (UR) and non-remission (NR). The PANSS, Social Functioning Scale and WHOQoL were used to evaluate the patients' psychosocial functioning levels, symptomatic and functional remissions and satisfying QoL. A good outcome was defined as meeting, simultaneously, the criteria of symptomatic and functional remissions and satisfying QoL at T4, while failure to meet all of these criteria was defined as a poor outcome.

RESULTS

Among them, 17.2% patients were in stable remission, 57.8% in unstable remission and 25.0% were unremitted at all time points. The SR group had lower levels of psychopathological symptoms and reported better social functioning and QoL than the NR group. During the follow-up, the symptoms increased, social functioning slightly improved and QoL did not change. At T4, 53% of the sample had a poor outcome, which was independently predicted by the longer duration of untreated psychosis and a lack of satisfying QoL at T1.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that: (1) the long-term course in schizophrenia is heterogeneous and that three illness trajectories exist, (2) social functioning and QoL are only partially connected with symptomatic remission (3), the risk of a poor outcome may potentially be reduced by appropriate interventions at an early stage of the illness.

Burden in caregivers of long-term stroke survivors: Prevalence and determinants at 6 months and 5 years after stroke

OBJECTIVES

To assess the prevalence of considerable burden among caregivers of stroke survivors at 6 months (Time 1) and 5 years after stroke (Time 2), to analyse changes in burden severity over time and to identify factors associated with the burden.

METHODS

Eighty eight patient/caregiver pairs were assessed. Caregiver burden was measured with the Caregiver Burden Scale. Socio-demographic, stroke-related and psychological characteristics were analysed as potential determinants of the burden. Exact multiple logistic regression was used to identify the predictive factors.

RESULTS

Considerable burden was reported by 44% of the caregivers at Time 1 and 30% at Time 2. The burden was independently associated with caregivers' sense of coherence and amount of time spent caregiving at Time 1, and with caregivers' anxiety at Time 2.

CONCLUSIONS

A significant proportion of the caregivers experienced considerable burden in the post-acute and chronic phases of stroke, although this proportion declined over time. Several characteristics were associated with the increased burden at different time points. All the independent predictors related to aspects of the carers.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Programmes including education about coping strategies and time management, as well as respite care provision, could be beneficial and might help to reduce the burden of caregiving.

Caregiving burden and its determinants in Polish caregivers of stroke survivors

INTRODUCTION

Despite the growing body of literature on the consequences of providing non-professional care to stroke survivors, the determinants of caregiving burden are still not fully recognized. Identification of significant determinants can facilitate caregiver intervention programs. The aim of this study was to evaluate the level of burden borne by caregivers of stroke patients and to identify the most important determinants of burden at 6 months after hospitalization.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Data were collected from 150 pairs of stroke patients/caregivers. Caregiver burden was assessed on the Caregiver Burden scale (CB). Several characteristics were measured as potential predictors of the burden. Special attention was paid to the caregiver's sense of coherence (SOC) and anxiety. Regression analysis was employed to test the hypothesized relationships between these variables and the burden.

RESULTS

Forty-seven percentage of the caregivers reported a substantial burden (severe or moderate). Caregiver SOC (p < 0.001), anxiety (p < 0.001) and the patients' functional status (p < 0.001) were the most important predictors of the overall burden and the most consistent predictors of the majority of aspects included in the CB scale. Caregiver health, patient's gender, time spent caregiving and social support were also factors related to the burden. The identified predictors explained 67% of the variance in the overall burden.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinicians and other professionals should focus on the coping abilities of caregivers, their emotional state and the level of patients' dependency, as these are the vital and modifiable factors affecting caregiver burden following stroke.

[Social functioning and quality of life in schizophrenia patients --relationship with symptomatic remission and duration of illness]

AIM

The assessment of social functioning and subjective quality of life in relation to symptomatic remission in schizophrenia patients after a first psychiatric hospitalization, as well as the analysis of connection between intensity of psychopathological symptoms and the level of functioning and quality of life, taking into account the status of remission and duration of illness.

METHODS

Sixty-four patients were assessed, at 13 months (1st examination) and at mean 8 years (2nd examination) after the first hospitalization, and compared with two control groups of healthy persons. The following scales were used: Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Social Functioning Scale (SFS), WHO Quality of Life (WHOQoL--Bref) scale and Global Assessment Scale (GAS).

RESULTS

At first examination, the score of SFS domains was not significantly different between patients in remission and without remission while the score of most domains of WHOQoL was significantly higher in patients with remission. At second examination, the scores of both SFS and WHOQoL were significantly higher in patients with remission and did not differ significantly from healthy persons. In both examinations, significant correlations between PANSS and SFS and WHOQoL scores were found, especially in patients without remission.

CONCLUSIONS

At mean 8 years after first psychiatric hospitalization, 2/3 of the patients with schizophrenia did not get a symptomatic remission and had worse social functioning and quality of life compared to patients with remission and to healthy controls. Psychopathological symptoms correlated significantly with social functioning and quality of life, especially among patients without remission.

[Stroke incidence, case fatality and mortality--current trends and future prognosis]

In Europe, since the 40's of the previous century the tendency of decreasing number of stroke cases has been observed. In Poland, epidemiological data concerning the stroke have shown relatively stable index of stroke incidence and stroke mortality rates in the last few decades. The decline concerns mostly early poststroke mortality which results directly in the increase of the number of people who have recovered from stroke. However, the index of post-stroke mortality is still higher in Poland than in other European countries and the USA. The prognosis referring to the incidence in next years, caused by demographic alterations related to the increasing number of elderly people, is not optimistic. Significant increase of population at the age of 65 and more is going to contribute to the increase of the number of new stroke cases in Poland and other European countries. This fact becomes a challenge both for hospitals, care-giver agencies and patients' families.