Evidence for a role of mixed lineage kinases in neuronal apoptosis

Superior cervical ganglion (SCG) sympathetic neurons die by apoptosis when deprived of nerve growth factor (NGF). It has been shown previously that the induction of apoptosis in these neurons at NGF withdrawal requires both the activity of the small GTP-binding protein Cdc42 and the activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway. The mixed lineage kinase 3 (MLK3) belongs to a family of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase kinase kinases. MLK3 contains a Cdc42/Rac interactive-binding (CRIB) domain and activates both the JNK and the p38 MAP kinase pathways. In this study the role of MLK3 in the induction of apoptosis in sympathetic neurons has been investigated. Overexpression of an active MLK3 induces activation of the JNK pathway and apoptosis in SCG neurons. In addition, overexpression of kinase dead mutants of MLK3 blocks apoptosis as well as c-Jun phosphorylation induced by NGF deprivation. More importantly, MLK3 activity seems to increase by 5 hr after NGF withdrawal in both differentiated PC12 cells and SCG neurons. We also show that MLK3 lies downstream of Cdc42 in the neuronal death pathway. Regulation of MLK3 in neurons seems to be dependent on MLK3 activity and possibly on an additional cellular component, but not on its binding to Cdc42. These results suggest that MLK3, or a closely related kinase, is a physiological element of NGF withdrawal-induced activation of the Cdc42-c-Jun pathway and neuronal death. MLK3 therefore could be an interesting therapeutic target in a number of neurodegenerative diseases involving neuronal apoptosis.

Role of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase in regulation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway and apoptosis in sympathetic neurons

We have previously shown that nerve growth factor (NGF) withdrawal-induced death requires the activity of the small GTP-binding protein Cdc42 and that overexpression of an active form of Cdc42 is sufficient to mediate neuronal apoptosis via activation of the c-Jun pathway. Recently, a new mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase kinase kinase, apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) which activates both the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 MAP kinase pathways and plays pivotal roles in tumor necrosis factor- and Fas-induced apoptosis, has been identified. Therefore, we investigated the role of ASK1 in neuronal apoptosis by using rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) neuronal cells and primary rat sympathetic neurons (SCGs). Overexpression of ASK1-DeltaN, a constitutively active mutant of ASK1, activated JNK and induced apoptosis in differentiated PC12 cells and SCG neurons. Moreover, in differentiated PC12 cells, NGF withdrawal induced a four- to fivefold increase in the activity of endogenous ASK1. Finally, expression of a kinase-inactive ASK1 significantly blocked both NGF withdrawal- and Cdc42-induced death and activation of c-jun. Taken together, these results demonstrate that ASK1 is a crucial element of NGF withdrawal-induced activation of the Cdc42-c-Jun pathway and neuronal apoptosis.

The small GTP-binding protein Cdc42 is required for nerve growth factor withdrawal-induced neuronal death

An increase in the level of the c-Jun transcription factor and of its phosphorylation has previously been shown to be essential for nerve growth factor (NGF) withdrawal-induced apoptosis of rat sympathetic neurons (SCG). The Rho-like GTPases Cdc42 and Rac1 are involved in the regulation of a number of cellular processes, including activation of the c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway. Therefore, we have investigated the role of these GTPases in this process. Overexpression of activated Rac1 or Cdc42 in SCG neurons maintained in the presence of NGF induced apoptosis, whereas expression of dominant negative mutants of Cdc42 or Rac1 blocked apoptosis following NGF withdrawal. Cdc42 activation produced an increase in the level of c-Jun and of its phosphorylation. Furthermore, Cdc42-induced death was prevented by coexpressing the c-Jun dominant negative FLAGDelta169. Thus, Cdc42 appears to function as an initiator of neuronal cell death by activating a transcriptional pathway regulated by c-Jun.

Increased surface phosphatidylserine is an early marker of neuronal apoptosis

Neuronal apoptosis is the subject of intense investigation and is beginning to be understood in some molecular detail. In the present study, we show that PC12 cells, like certain other cell types, redistribute phosphatidylserine (PS) from the inner leaflet to the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane early in the process of apoptosis. The externalised PS can be readily visualised by incubating intact cells with a fluorescent derivative of the protein annexin V. When apoptosis is blocked with an inhibitor of interleukin-1beta-converting-enzyme-like proteases, the increased annexin binding is also blocked. Fluorescent annexin V binding provides a rapid and convenient way to identify apoptotic neurones.

Phosphorylation of tyrosine 720 in the platelet-derived growth factor alpha receptor is required for binding of Grb2 and SHP-2 but not for activation of Ras or cell proliferation

Following binding of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), the PDGF alpha receptor (alphaPDGFR) becomes tyrosine phosphorylated and associates with a number of signal transduction molecules, including phospholipase Cgamma-1 (PLCgamma-1), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), the phosphotyrosine phosphatase SHP-2, Grb2, and Src. Here, we present data identifying a novel phosphorylation site in the kinase insert domain of the alphaPDGFR at tyrosine (Y) 720. We replaced this residue with phenylalanine and expressed the mutated receptor (F720) in Patch fibroblasts that do not express the alphaPDGFR. Characterization of the F720 mutant indicated that binding of two proteins, SHP-2 and Grb2, was severely impaired, whereas PLCgamma-1 and PI3K associated to wild-type levels. In addition, mutating Y720 to phenylalanine dramatically reduced PDGF-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation of SHP-2. Since Y720 was required for recruitment of two proteins, we investigated the mechanism by which these two proteins associated with the alphaPDGFR. SHP-2 bound the alphaPDGFR directly, whereas Grb2 associated indirectly, most probably via SHP-2, as Grb2 and SHP-2 coimmunoprecipitated when SHP-2 was tyrosine phosphorylated. We also compared the ability of the wild-type and F720 alphaPDGFRs to mediate a number of downstream events. Preventing the alphaPDGFR from recruiting SHP-2 and Grb2 did not compromise PDGF-AA-induced activation of Ras, initiation of DNA synthesis, or growth of cells in soft agar. We conclude that phosphorylation of the alphaPDGFR at Y720 is required for association of SHP-2 and Grb2 and tyrosine phosphorylation of SHP-2; however, these events are not required for the alphaPDGFR to activate Ras or initiate a proliferative response. In addition, these findings reveal that while SHP-2 binds to both of the receptors, it binds in different locations: to the carboxy terminus of the betaPDGFR but to the kinase insert of the alphaPDGFR.

The PDGF receptor alpha subunit activates p21ras and triggers DNA synthesis without interacting with rasGAP

There are two closely related, but distinct platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) subunits: alpha and beta. Recent studies have indicated that relay of a biological signal from the activated PDGFR beta subunit is determined to a large degree by the intracellular signal transduction enzymes with which the beta subunit associates. Like the beta subunit, the PDGFR alpha subunit encodes a tyrosine kinase that is activated and tyrosine phosphorylated upon binding of PDGF. To investigate the mechanism by which the PDGFR alpha subunit mediates signal transduction, we examined the proteins that associate with the activated PDGFR alpha subunit. The human alpha subunit was expressed in PhB cells, fibroblasts derived from Ph/Ph mouse embryos, which express the beta subunit but do not express the PDGFR alpha subunit. In response to binding of PDGF, the alpha subunit stably associated with phospholipase C gamma 1 (PLC-gamma 1), phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K), the phosphotyrosine phosphatase Syp, and a 120 kd protein. These same proteins were detected binding to the activated PDGFR beta subunit. Unlike the PDGFR beta subunit, the PDGF-activated alpha subunit did not stably associate with the GTPase activating protein of ras (rasGAP), nor did it mediate tyrosine phosphorylation of rasGAP. Despite its apparent inability to interact with rasGAP, the alpha subunit was fully able to trigger PDGF-dependent p21ras activation and DNA synthesis. We conclude that the PDGFR alpha subunit does not mediate tyrosine phosphorylation or associate with ras-GAP, and that these events are not required for PDGF-AA-mediated activation of p21ras or DNA synthesis.

The human erythrocyte contains two forms of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase which are differentially active toward membranes

A human erythrocyte cytosolic phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIP kinase) and a membrane-bound PIP kinase have been purified by phosphocellulose chromatography. Fractionation of the membrane-bound PIP kinase activities by phosphocellulose separated activity into two peaks, which eluted at 0.6 M NaCl (type I PIP kinase) and 1.0 M NaCl (type II PIP kinase). The cytosolic PIP kinase and the membrane-bound type II PIP kinase are 53 kDa by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, have indistinguishable 125I-peptide maps, and are immunochemically indistinguishable, suggesting that they are sequence identical. Antibodies raised to the cytosolic PIP kinase inhibit activity of both the membrane-bound type II and the cytosolic PIP kinases. The type I PIP kinase appears to be distinct from the cytosolic and membrane-bound type II PIP kinase; it is not immunocross-reactive, and antibodies toward type II PIP kinases do not inhibit type I PIP kinase. Further, membrane-bound type II PIP kinase can be removed from type I PIP kinase without loss of activity. Functional characterization of the PIP kinases demonstrates that the type I kinase has a 10-fold lower Km for PIP and a 5-fold higher Km for ATP compared with the type II enzymes. The type I and type II (membrane-bound or cytosolic) PIP kinases are modulated differentially by spermine and heparin. Finally, the type I PIP kinase phosphorylates intrinsic PIP on isolated erythrocyte membranes, whereas the type II PIP kinases have no activity toward native membranes.

Erythroid membrane-bound protein kinase binds to a membrane component and is regulated by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate

In the erythrocyte, a membrane-bound serine/threonine protein kinase (a casein kinase) has been shown to phosphorylate a number of membrane proteins, modulating their function. Here we report that the membrane-bound protein kinase binds to membranes by an association with a minor membrane component contained in preparations of glycophorin (possibly a minor glycophorin). The binding of the kinase to glycophorins does not significantly modify kinase activity. However, upon binding, the kinase activity is potently inhibited by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, and the affinity of the kinase for the glycophorins is increased. Other phospholipids or polyanions such as inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate or 2,3-diphosphoglycerate do not affect protein kinase activity when the kinase is bound to membranes but do inhibit the solubilized membrane-bound kinase. In the erythrocyte, there is a cytosolic form of the casein kinase which is very similar, having the same molecular weight and substrate specificity as the membrane-bound casein kinase. The cytosolic casein kinase is inhibited by 2,3-diphosphoglycerate but much less so by glycophorin preparations containing phosphoinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. When the sequences of both casein kinases were compared by two-dimensional peptide mapping, it was found that the two kinases were very similar but not identical.