Challenges detecting SARS-CoV-2 in Costa Rican domestic wastewater and river water

This study presents the development of a SARS-CoV-2 detection method for domestic wastewater and river water in Costa Rica, a middle-income country in Central America. Over a three-year period (November to December 2020, July to November 2021, and June to October 2022), 80 composite wastewater samples (43 influent and 37 effluent) were collected from a Wastewater Treatment Plant (SJ-WWTP) located in San José, Costa Rica. Additionally, 36 river water samples were collected from the Torres River near the SJ-WWTP discharge site. A total of three protocols for SARS-CoV-2 viral concentration and RNA detection and quantification were analyzed. Two protocols using adsorption-elution with PEG precipitation (Protocol A and B, differing in the RNA extraction kit; n = 82) were used on wastewater samples frozen prior to concentration, while wastewater (n = 34) collected in 2022 were immediately concentrated using PEG precipitation. The percent recovery of Bovine coronavirus (BCoV) was highest using the Zymo Environ Water RNA (ZEW) kit with PEG precipitation executed on the same day as collection (mean 6.06 % ± 1.37 %). It was lowest when samples were frozen and thawed, and viruses were concentrated using adsorption-elution and PEG concentration methods using the PureLink™ Viral RNA/DNA Mini (PLV) kit (protocol A; mean 0.48 % ± 0.23 %). Pepper mild mottle virus and Bovine coronavirus were used as process controls to understand the suitability and potential impact of viral recovery on the detection/quantification of SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Overall, SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in influent and effluent wastewater samples collected in 2022 but not in earlier years when the method was not optimized. The burden of SARS-CoV-2 at the SJ-WWTP decreased from week 36 to week 43 of 2022, coinciding with a decline in the national COVID-19 prevalence rate. Developing comprehensive nationwide surveillance programs for wastewater-based epidemiology in low-middle-income countries involves significant technical and logistical challenges.

Frailty as a predictor of mortality: a comparative cohort study of older adults in Costa Rica and the United States

BACKGROUND

Frailty is a common condition among older adults that results from aging-related declines in multiple systems. Frailty increases older adults' vulnerability to negative health outcomes, including loss of mobility, falls, hospitalizations, and mortality. The aim of this study is to examine the association between frailty and mortality in older adults from Costa Rica and the United States.

METHODS

This prospective cohort study uses secondary nationally-representative data of community-dwelling older adults from the Costa Rican Longevity and Healthy Aging Study (CRELES, n = 1,790) and the National Health & Aging Trends Study (NHATS, n = 6,680). Frailty status was assessed using Physical Frailty Phenotype, which includes the following five criteria: shrinking, exhaustion, low physical activity, muscle weakness, and slow gait. We used Cox proportional hazard models to examine the association between frailty and all-cause mortality, including sociodemographic characteristics and health behaviors as covariates in the models. Mortality follow-up time was right censored at 8 years from the date at baseline interview.

RESULTS

The death hazard for frail compared to non-frail older adults was three-fold in Costa Rica (HR = 3.14, 95% CI: 2.13-4.62) and four-fold in the White US (HR = 4.02, 95% CI: 3.04-5.32). Older age, being male, and smoking increased mortality risk in both countries. High education was a protective factor in the US, whereas being married/in union was a protective factor in Costa Rica. In the US, White older adults had a lower risk of death compared to all other races and ethnicities.

CONCLUSIONS

Results indicate that frailty can have a differential impact on mortality depending on the country. Access to universal health care across the life course in Costa Rica and higher levels of stress and social isolation in the US may explain differences observed in end-of-life trajectories among frail older adults.

Individual-specific levels of CTG•CAG somatic instability are shared across multiple tissues in myotonic dystrophy type 1

Myotonic dystrophy type 1 is a complex disease caused by a genetically unstable CTG repeat expansion in the 3'-untranslated region of the DMPK gene. Age-dependent, tissue-specific somatic instability has confounded genotype-phenotype associations, but growing evidence suggests that it also contributes directly toward disease progression. Using a well-characterized clinical cohort of DM1 patients from Costa Rica, we quantified somatic instability in blood, buccal cells, skin and skeletal muscle. Whilst skeletal muscle showed the largest expansions, modal allele lengths in skin were also very large and frequently exceeded 2000 CTG repeats. Similarly, the degree of somatic expansion in blood, muscle and skin were associated with each other. Notably, we found that the degree of somatic expansion in skin was highly predictive of that in skeletal muscle. More importantly, we established that individuals whose repeat expanded more rapidly than expected in one tissue (after correction for progenitor allele length and age) also expanded more rapidly than expected in other tissues. We also provide evidence suggesting that individuals in whom the repeat expanded more rapidly than expected in skeletal muscle have an earlier age at onset than expected (after correction for the progenitor allele length). Pyrosequencing analyses of the genomic DNA flanking the CTG repeat revealed that the degree of methylation in muscle was well predicted by the muscle modal allele length and age, but that neither methylation of the flanking DNA nor levels of DMPK sense and anti-sense transcripts could obviously explain individual- or tissue-specific patterns of somatic instability.

Association between obesity and mortality in the Costa Rican elderly: a cohort study

Background

Costa Rica, along with other Latin American countries, is undergoing population aging, with an increase in the prevalence of chronic conditions, many of them resulting from a growing prevalence of obesity. As a result of the demographic and epidemiological transitions, the causes of morbidity and mortality have changed from communicable to non-communicable diseases. An increase in overweight and obesity is hypothesized to be related to premature mortality. This study assesses the association between obesity and both all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in a Costa Rican elderly population.

Methods

This is a secondary data analysis of the Costa Rican Longevity and Healthy Aging Study (CRELES, for its Spanish acronym), a longitudinal nationally representative cohort study of health and life-course experiences of the Costa Rican elderly. A baseline (n = 2827) and two subsequent 2-year follow-up interviews were conducted. Data analyses include descriptive statistics and survival models. Cox and Gompertz distributions were used to model general mortality and cardiovascular mortality as a function of obesity and controlling for confounders. Anthropometric measures used were Body Mass Index (BMI) and Waist Circumference (WC).

Results

Each one-unit increment in BMI was significantly associated to a 3,1% (p < 0.001) and 2,6% (p = 0.021) increment in general and cardiovascular mortality respectively. Each one-unit increment in WC was significantly associated with a 0,8% (p = 0.006) increment in general mortality, whereas WC was not significantly associated with cardiovascular mortality.

Conclusions

Obesity is associated with mortality in the Costa Rican elderly. This association is strongest between obesity and all-cause mortality. As general obesity increases, all-cause and cardiovascular mortality also increase in this population. Similarly, as central obesity increases, all-cause mortality increases. Policies aimed at preventing obesity and chronic conditions are warranted for a better survival in this population.

Editorial: Instituto de Investigaciones en Salud 45 años al cuidado de Costa Rica

El Instituto de Investigaciones en Salud (INISA), de la Universidad de Costa Rica, es una unidad multidisciplinaria que desde hace 45 años investiga en cuatro grandes campos: la genética humana, el cáncer, el envejecimiento y la interacción entre la nutrición y los procesos de infección.

Inequidades en la detección temprana del cáncer de cérvix: una realidad en la población costarricense

Introducción: el cáncer de cérvix es una de las enfermedades neoplásicas más frecuentes que afecta la salud de las mujeres en el mundo. Objetivo: determinar si existen diferencias entre regiones de Costa Rica en el uso del papanicoláu, con el fin de visualizar las inequidades relacionadas con la detección temprana del cáncer cérvico-uterino. Metodología: este estudio se realizó a partir de la Encuesta Nacional de Hogares de 2014, la cual es representativa en el ámbito nacional. Se utilizó R-Studio para estimar dos modelos de regresión multinomial que explican el tiempo transcurrido desde el último papanicoláu y las razones por las que las mujeres nunca se habían realizado uno. Se recurrió a datos del Registro Nacional de Tumores del Ministerio de Salud para evaluar la razón in-situ/invasor. Resultados: en comparación con las residentes de la región Central, las mujeres de las regiones Chorotega, Pacífico Central y Huetar Caribe son respectivamente un 80 % (OR=1,80; p<0,01), un 52 % (OR=1,52; p=0,031) y un 58 % (OR=1,58; p<0,01) más propensas a haberse realizado la citología vaginal por última vez hace 5 años o más que hace 1 o 2 años. Discusión: de acuerdo con los resultados de la presente investigación, la Región Chorotega presenta las condiciones más desventajosas en cuanto a la práctica de PAP, esto implica un mayor riesgo de desarrollar lesiones y cáncer de cérvix. Conclusiones: en busca de reducir las brechas y mejorar las condiciones de acceso, es necesario coordinar y articular esfuerzos institucionales tanto gubernamentales como no gubernamentales, incluyendo la participación y el protagonismo de las mujeres.

Corresponsabilidad en salud como base de un plan de acción interinstitucional: abordaje del sobrepeso y la obesidad en una población costarricense

El objetivo de este estudio fue describir el procesamiento de un plan de acción interinstitucional para el abordaje del sobrepeso y la obesidad en dos cantones urbanos de Costa Rica: Alajuelita y Escazú. Esta investigación tiene enfoque cualitativo, es de tipo descriptivo transversal y utiliza una metodología de investigación-acción, la cual toma como participantes a los actores institucionales de ambos cantones, por un lapso de seis meses. El principal resultado fue el desarrollo de un plan de acción para el abordaje del sobrepeso y la obesidad en madres de cada cantón. Además, se propusieron indicadores de proceso, producto y resultado para cada una de las cuatro áreas de trabajo que formaron parte de dicha herramienta. Se concluyó que la corresponsabilidad en salud es de vital importancia para crear acciones dirigidas a mejorar la salud de las personas, especialmente en comunidades donde, si bien existe una importante voluntad política de los actores institucionales, se cuenta con pocos recursos.

[Intake of processed meats by Costa Rican women: effect of socioeconomic status]

Introduction

Intake of processed meats has been associated with serious health problems that are common among women. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified processed meats as human carcinogens, associated specifically with colon cancer. The increase in intake of processed meats, which are a low-cost source of dietary protein, varies by socioeconomic status (SES) and can impact chronic disease incidence.

Objective

Examine the association between processed meats intake and (a) total protein intake, (b) inadequate protein intake, by SES.

Methods

This study included a representative sample (N = 135) of women age 25 to 45 years, with one to four children, from three different socioeconomic groups who were residents of two counties from the Greater Metropolitan Area of San José, Costa Rica between June 2014 and March 2015. Using photographs, we examined women's perceptions of the cost and perceived desirability of 12 different foods, including processed meats. Using 24-hour dietary recalls collected on three different days, and the ValorNut food composition database, we estimated total protein intake, in grams, and determined the intake frequency (times/day) of processed meat. Each women's dietary protein requirement was estimated based on her bodyweight. Inadequate protein intake was calculated as the difference between protein requirement and actual intake. A linear regression model was used to determine the association between total protein intake in grams and intake frequency (times/day) of processed meat. A logistic regression model was used to estimate the association between low protein intake and intake frequency (times/day) of processed meat.

Results

Processed meats were perceived as the least preferred protein source but were the third most commonly consumed protein source. Consumption of processed meats differed by SES and was lower in the higher SES group (P < 0.01). The most commonly consumed processed meats by SES were "mortadella" (low-SES), sausages (middle-SES), and sliced turkey/ham (high-SES). Processed meat intake was significantly associated with an increase in protein intake. There was an inverse association between SES and inadequate protein intake.

Conclusions

Processed meat intake is associated with SES. Women may consume processed meats because they are perceived to be a low-cost protein source. Educational strategies are needed to help women identify their protein needs and meet those needs with healthier and affordable dietary alternatives.

Longitudinal increases in somatic mosaicism of the expanded CTG repeat in myotonic dystrophy type 1 are associated with variation in age-at-onset

In myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1), somatic mosaicism of the (CTG)n repeat expansion is age-dependent, tissue-specific and expansion-biased. These features contribute toward variation in disease severity and confound genotype-to-phenotype analyses. To investigate how the (CTG)n repeat expansion changes over time, we collected three longitudinal blood DNA samples separated by 8-15 years and used small pool and single-molecule PCR in 43 DM1 patients. We used the lower boundary of the allele length distribution as the best estimate for the inherited progenitor allele length (ePAL), which is itself the best predictor of disease severity. Although in most patients the lower boundary of the allele length distribution was conserved over time, in many this estimate also increased with age, suggesting samples for research studies and clinical trials should be obtained as early as possible. As expected, the modal allele length increased over time, driven primarily by ePAL, age-at-sampling and the time interval. As expected, small expansions <100 repeats did not expand as rapidly as larger alleles. However, the rate of expansion of very large alleles was not obviously proportionally higher. This may, at least in part, be a result of the allele length-dependent increase in large contractions that we also observed. We also determined that individual-specific variation in the increase of modal allele length over time not accounted for by ePAL, age-at-sampling and time was inversely associated with individual-specific variation in age-at-onset not accounted for by ePAL, further highlighting somatic expansion as a therapeutic target in DM1.

Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) clinical sub-types and CTCF site methylation status flanking the CTG expansion are mutant allele length-dependent

Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is a complex disease with a wide spectrum of symptoms. The exact relationship between mutant CTG repeat expansion size and clinical outcome remains unclear. DM1 congenital patients (CDM) inherit the largest expanded alleles, which are associated with abnormal and increased DNA methylation flanking the CTG repeat. However, DNA methylation at the DMPK locus remains understudied. Its relationship to DM1 clinical subtypes, expansion size and age-at-onset is not yet completely understood. Using pyrosequencing-based methylation analysis on 225 blood DNA samples from Costa Rican DM1 patients, we determined that the size of the estimated progenitor allele length (ePAL) is not only a good discriminator between CDM and non-CDM cases (with an estimated threshold at 653 CTG repeats), but also for all DM1 clinical subtypes. Secondly, increased methylation at both CTCF sites upstream and downstream of the expansion was almost exclusively present in CDM cases. Thirdly, levels of abnormal methylation were associated with clinical subtype, age and ePAL, with strong correlations between these variables. Fourthly, both ePAL and the intergenerational expansion size were significantly associated with methylation status. Finally, methylation status was associated with ePAL and maternal inheritance, with almost exclusively maternal transmission of CDM. In conclusion, increased DNA methylation at the CTCF sites flanking the DM1 expansion could be linked to ePAL, and both increased methylation and the ePAL could be considered biomarkers for the CDM phenotype.

Determinantes sociales de la salud y prevalencia de sobrepesoobesidad en mujeres urbanas, según nivel socioeconómico

La obesidad es un factor de riesgo para diferentes enfermedades crónicas y está asociada a factores genéticos, ambientales y sociales. Objetivo: analizar la asociación entre los determinantes sociales de la salud y la prevalencia de sobrepeso y obesidad en mujeres urbanas, según nivel socioeconómico. Métodos: este estudio de corte transversal se realizó un enfoque mixto. Para el componente cuantitativo se realizan entrevistas estructuradas a una muestra de mujeres de 25 a 45 años (n=137), representativa de dos cantones urbanos en Costa Rica. Para el componente cualitativo se realizan entrevistas semiestructuradas a una muestra de 13 actores institucionales de los mismos cantones. Resultados: existen desigualdades en la prevalencia de sobrepeso y obesidad, con una mayor afectación en la población de bajo nivel socioeconómico. La inseguridad ciudadana, el nivel socioeconómico y la sobrepoblación son obstáculos para el desarrollo de prácticas saludables. Existe una asociación significativa inversa entre la actividad física regular y el sobrepeso y obesidad (OR=0,35, p=0,03). Conclusiones: estos resultados son un insumo para realizar acciones que promuevan equidad, especialmente en poblaciones que no cuenten con los recursos para llevar una vida saludable.

Women's Participation in Pap Smear Screening in a Developing Country: Evidence for Improving Health Systems

Introduction

Every year about 83,000 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer in the Americas. Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) has one of the highest incidence and mortality rates from cervical cancer in the world. Although incidence has decreased by half in the last 30 years, cervical cancer remains a public health concern. The detection of precursor lesions through Papanicolaou (Pap) smear remains a critical tool in the context of prevention in Costa Rica and many other LAC countries.

Objective

To determine predictors of participation in Pap smear screening among Costa Rican women, with a special focus on women who have never had a Pap smear or have had a smear 5 or more years ago.

Methods

The data source for this study is the Costa Rican Households National Survey conducted in 2014. This survey is representative at the national, urban/rural zone, and administrative region level. A subsample of women aged 20 to 69 years who responded to the survey's Papanicolaou Module were included in this study (n = 11,709). Statistical analyses were conducted in R-Studio. Statistical significance level was set at 5%. Two multinomial regression models were estimated. The first model aimed to explain the five different categories of cytology use, which were defined according to the last time women had a Pap smear. The second model aimed to explain the five different categories of reasons why women had never had a Pap smear. Both models controlled for age, educational attainment, and marital status.

Results

Young women with high educational attainment were more likely to have never had a cytology. Women with a lower educational attainment, married, or in domestic relationship and of older age had greater odds of having had a cytology 5 or more years ago. Each year increment in age was significantly associated with an increase in the odds of never having a Pap smear because of health care access issues or because of cultural reasons as compared to not having an active sexual life.

Conclusions

Findings can inform public policy targeted to higher risk female populations where access to health services can be improved.

Projected impact of diabetes on the Costa Rican healthcare system

INTRODUCTION

Costa Rica, similar to many other Latin American countries is undergoing population aging at a fast pace. As a result of the epidemiological transition, the prevalence of diabetes has increased. This condition impacts not only individual lives, but also the healthcare system. The goal of this study is to examine the expected impact of diabetes, in terms of economic costs on the healthcare system and lives lost. We will also project how long it will take for the number of elderly individuals who are diabetic to double in Costa Rica.

METHODS

CRELES (Costa Rican Longevity and Healthy Aging Study), a three-wave nationally representative longitudinal study, is the main source of data for this research (n = 2827). The projected impact of diabetes was estimated in three ways: length of time for the number of elderly individuals with diabetes to double; projected economic costs of diabetes-related hospitalizations and outpatient care; and years of life lost to diabetes at age 60. Data analyses and estimations used multiple regression models, longitudinal regression models, and Lee-Carter stochastic population projections.

RESULTS

Doubling time of the diabetic elderly population is projected to occur in 13 calendar years. This will cause increases in hospitalization and outpatient consultation costs. The impact of diabetes on life expectancy at age 60 around the year 2035 is estimated to lead to a loss of about 7 months of life. The rapid pace at which the absolute number of elderly people with diabetes will double is projected to result in a negative economic impact on the healthcare system. Lives will also be lost due to diabetes.

CONCLUSION

Population aging will inevitably lead to an increasing number of elderly individuals, who are at greater risk for diabetes due to their lifelong exposure to risk factors. Actions to increase the quality of life of diabetic elderly are warranted. Decreasing the burden of diabetes on elderly populations and the Costa Rican healthcare system are necessary to impact the quantity and quality of life of incoming cohorts. Health promotion and prevention strategies that reduce diabetes risk factors are needed to improve the health of elderly populations.

A Somatic Coliphage Threshold Approach To Improve the Management of Activated Sludge Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluents in Resource-Limited Regions

Effective wastewater management is crucial to ensure the safety of water reuse projects and effluent discharge into surface waters. Multiple studies have demonstrated that municipal wastewater treatment with conventional activated sludge processes is inefficient for the removal of a wide spectrum of viruses in sewage. In this study, a well-accepted statistical approach was used to investigate the relationship between viral indicators and human enteric viruses during wastewater treatment in a resource-limited region. Influent and effluent samples from five urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Costa Rica were analyzed for somatic coliphage and human enterovirus, hepatitis A virus, norovirus genotypes I and II, and rotavirus. All WWTPs provide primary treatment followed by conventional activated sludge treatment prior to discharge into surface waters that are indirectly used for agricultural irrigation. The results revealed a statistically significant relationship between the detection of at least one of the five human enteric viruses and somatic coliphage. Multiple logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic curve analysis identified a threshold of 3.0 × 103 (3.5 log10) somatic coliphage PFU per 100 ml, which corresponded to an increased likelihood of encountering enteric viruses above the limit of detection (>1.83 × 102 virus targets/100 ml). Additionally, quantitative microbial risk assessment was executed for farmers indirectly reusing WWTP effluent that met the proposed threshold. The resulting estimated median cumulative annual disease burden complied with World Health Organization recommendations. Future studies are needed to validate the proposed threshold for use in Costa Rica and other regions.IMPORTANCE Effective wastewater management is crucial to ensure safe direct and indirect water reuse; nevertheless, few countries have adopted the virus log reduction value management approach established by the World Health Organization. In this study, we investigated an alternative and/or complementary approach to the virus log reduction value framework for the indirect reuse of activated sludge-treated wastewater effluent. Specifically, we employed a well-accepted statistical approach to identify a statistically sound somatic coliphage threshold value which corresponded to an increased likelihood of human enteric virus detection. This study demonstrates an alternative approach to the virus log reduction value framework which can be applied to improve wastewater reuse practices and effluent management.

Diabetes epidemics: inequalities increase the burden on the healthcare system

Diabetes is a major cause of morbidity and mortality and represents a source of demands on already constrained healthcare systems in Latin America and the Caribbean. We estimate inequalities in diabetes incidence, prevalence and mortality and assess the economic burden on the healthcare system in Costa Rica. The main source of data is the Costa Rican Longevity and Healthy Aging Study, a longitudinal nationally representative survey of the elderly population (n = 2827). Data analyses include descriptive statistics, multiple regression models and survival analysis models. More than a fifth of Costa Rican elderly experience diabetes. Incidence is estimated at 5 per 1000 person-years in the population 30+. Gender and geographical inequalities were found. Men have a significantly lower prevalence (16.51% vs 24.02%, P < 0.05) and incidence (4.3 vs 6.0 per 1000 person-years, P < 0.05), but higher mortality (hazard ratio = 1.31, P < 0.01). Longer time to the closest facility translates into a lower probability of having the condition diagnosed [odds ratio (OR) = 0.77, P < 0.05]. The diabetic as compared to the non-diabetic population imposes a larger economic burden on the healthcare system with a higher probability of using outpatient care (OR = 3.08, P < 0.01), medications (OR = 3.44, P < 0.01) and hospitalizations (OR = 1.24, P > 0.05). Individuals living in the Metro Area have a significantly lower probability of being hospitalized (OR = 0.72, P < 0.05), which may be evidence of better access to primary care that prevents hospitalization. Along the same line, women have higher utilization rates of outpatient care (OR = 2.02, P < 0.01) and medications (OR = 1.73, P < 0.01), which may contribute to lower odds of hospitalization (OR = 0.61, P < 0.01). Aligned with the aim of attaining Sustainable Development Goals, this study highlights the importance of generating health policies focused on prevention of diabetes that take into consideration gender and geographical inequalities. Strategies should booster preventive healthcare utilization by men and aim to make healthcare services accessible to all, regardless of geographical location.

Estacionalidad de la mortalidad en los trópicos

El objetivo de esta investigación es determinar la existencia y magnitud de ciclos de variación estacional en la mortalidad de Costa Rica de 1970 a 2016. Metodológicamente, el estudio se basa en microdatos de 630,000 defunciones entre esos años. La naturaleza cíclica de la variación estacional se modela con regresión sinusoide y parámetros estimados con regresión de Poisson. Los resultados muestran que hay variación estacional significativa con un máximo en enero y un mínimo en mayo. La mortalidad tiende a ser 7 % mayor en su ápex que en su nadir. Este patrón está determinado por accidentes, especialmente de transporte, alcoholismo, enfermedades cardio- y cerebrovasculares, e infecciones respiratorias. La mortalidad por diarreas presenta un patrón diferente de estacionalidad. En conclusión, la mayor mortalidad de enero estaría asociada con la temperatura menor, ausencia de pluviosidad, menor luz solar y comportamiento durante días festivos. Algunos picos de mortalidad podrían deberse a fluctuaciones en la calidad de los servicios de salud y de atención de emergencias.

Inequality in the Incidence of Cervical Cancer: Costa Rica 1980-2010

Introduction: Cervical cancer is the third most incident and the fourth most lethal cancer among Costa Rican women. The purpose of this study was to quantify incidence inequality along three decades and to explore its determinants. Materials and Methods: This is a population-based study. Main data sources were the National Tumor Registry (1980-2010), CRELES (Costa Rican Longevity and Healthy Aging Study) longitudinal survey (2013), and published indices of economic condition (2007) and access to healthcare (2000). Cartography was made with QGIS software. Inequality was quantified using the Theil-T index. With the purpose of detecting differences by tumor's behavior, inequality was estimated for "in situ" and invasive incidence. In Situ/Invasive Ratios were estimated as an additional marker of inequality. Poisson and spatial regression analyses were conducted with Stata and ArcMap software, respectively, to assess the association between incidence and social determinants such as economic condition, access to healthcare and sub-utilization of Papanicolaou screening. Results: As measured by Theil-T index, incidence inequality has reached high (83 to 87%) levels during the last three decades. For invasive cervical cancer, inequality has been rising especially in women aged 50-59; increasing from 58% in the 1980's to 66% in 2000's. Poisson regression models showed that sub-utilization of Papanicolaou smear was associated with a significant decrease in the probability of early diagnosis. Costa Rican guidelines establish a Pap smear every 2 years; having a Pap smear every 3 years or longer was associated with a 36% decrease in the probability of early "in situ" diagnosis (IRR = 0.64, p = 0.003) in the last decade. Spatial regression models allowed for the detection of specific areas where incidence of invasive cervical cancer was higher than expected. Conclusion: Results from this study provide evidence of inequality in the incidence of cervical cancer, which has been high over three decades, and may be explained by sub-utilization of Papanicolaou smear screening in certain regions. The reasons why women do not adequately use screening must be addressed in future research. Interventions should be developed to stimulate the utilization of screening especially among women aged 50 to 59 where inequality has been rising.

Deficiencias nutricionales y anemia en niñas y niños preescolares de Costa Rica en el periodo 2014-2016

Objetivos: (i) Determinar la prevalencia de deficiencias nutricionales y anemia en preescolares que se benefician de dos programas de ayuda nutricional (intramuros y extramuros) en los Centros de Educación y Nutrición y Centros Infantiles de Nutrición y Atención Integral (CEN-CINAI) e (ii) identificar los factores socioeconómicos asociados con deficiencias nutricionales y anemia en esta población. Métodos: Se censaron 2503 niñas y niños de 0 a 7 años de 13 centros CEN-CINAI de la Región Central Sur de Costa Rica en el período 2014-2016. La infomación sobre las características socioeconómicas de sus familias se obtuvo mediante un cuestionario estructurado. Además, se tomaron medidas antropométricas (n=2205) y muestras de sangre para hemograma (n=2203) de las niñas y los niños. Resultados: Se estimó una prevalencia de deficiencias nutricionales de 15,4% (intervalo de confianza [IC] 95%: 14,0-17,0) y una prevalencia de anemia de 7,5% (IC 95%: 6,4-8,6). Ambas condiciones fueron más frecuentes en infantes ≤5 años (23,2% para deficiencias nutricionales y 8,6% para anemia) y en beneficiarios del programa de ayuda extramuros (41,9% y 10,6%, respectivamente). Otros factores demográficos y socioeconómicos, tales como ser del sexo femenino, habitar en una vivienda no adecuada con un techo de material natural o de desecho y ser parte de una familia numerosa (>4 integrantes) también se asociaron con la presencia de deficiencias nutricionales y/o anemia. Conclusiones: Las prevalencias de deficiencias nutricionales y anemia observadas en este estudio resaltan la importancia de intervenir aquellos factores socioeconómicos modificables que influyen en estas prevalencias y mejorar la atención médica de preescolares en condición de vulnerabilidad

Percepciones sobre disponibilidad de alimentos y autorreporte de ingesta alimentaria en mujeres urbanas costarricenses: Un estudio piloto

<strong>Antecedentes:</strong> Se considera que la disponibilidad y consumo de alimentos han contribuido al aumento de obesidad entre las mujeres de bajo nivel socioeconómico (NSE) en Latinoamérica. En Costa Rica, pocos estudios han investigado cómo la disponibilidad y consumo varían según NSE. <strong>Objetivos:</strong> Los objetivos de este estudio en San José, Costa Rica, son (1) evaluar percepciones sobre la disponibilidad de alimentos y (2) describir el consumo de alimentos en mujeres que viven en áreas de alto y bajo NSE. <strong>Métodos:</strong> En marzo 2013, se reclutaron 30 mujeres no embarazadas, ni dando lactancia materna, de 25 a 50 años, en un cantón de bajo y otro de alto NSE. Las percepciones sobre disponibilidad de alimentos se analizaron de manera cualitativa mediante entrevistas estructuradas a 17 de las 30 mujeres. El consumo de alimentos se analizó de manera cuantitativa mediante recordatorios de 24 horas en las 30 mujeres. <strong>Resultados:</strong> Muchas mujeres del cantón de bajo NSE reportaron que incluirían más pollo y pescado en su dieta si el costo no fuera una barrera. La ingesta de proteína como proporción del valor energético total fue significativamente mayor en las mujeres del cantón de alto NSE (17% DE=5 vs. 13 DE=3, <em>p</em> = 0.02). La ingesta de proteína de origen animal fue significativamente mayor entre las mujeres del cantón de alto NSE (38 g DE=22 vs. 21 DE=11, <em>p</em>=0.02). <strong>Conclusión:</strong> La ingesta de proteína fue mayor en las mujeres de alto NSE y puede deberse al costo percibido de los alimentos de origen animal.

Perceptions of food availability and self-reported dietary intake in urban Costa Rican women: A Pilot Study

<strong>Background:</strong> In Latin America, obesity is rising among women of low socioeconomic status (SES). Food availability and dietary intake are thought to be important contributors. In Costa Rica, few studies have investigated food availability, dietary intake, or how they vary by SES. <strong>Objectives:</strong> The purpose of this study in San José, Costa Rica was to (1) evaluate women’s perceptions of food availability and, (2) describe dietary intake in women from low- and high-SES areas of the city. <strong>Methods:</strong> Thirty non-pregnant, non-lactating women between 25 and 50 years were recruited in March 2013 from a low- and high-SES canton. Structured, qualitative interviews assessed perceptions of food availability in 17 of the 30 women. Quantitative 24-hour dietary recalls assessed dietary intake in all 30 women. <strong>Results:</strong> Many women from the low-SES canton reported that they would include more chicken and fish in their diet if cost were not a barrier. Protein intake as a proportion of total energy intake was significantly greater in women from the high- versus low-SES canton (17% SD=5 vs. 13 SD=3, <em>p</em> = 0.02). Protein intake from animal source foods was significantly greater in women from the high-SES canton (38 g SD=22 vs. 21 SD=11, <em>p</em> = 0.02). <strong>Conclusion:</strong> Protein intake was greater in high-SES women and this may be due to the perceived cost of animal source foods.

Factors associated with hypertension prevalence, unawareness and treatment among Costa Rican elderly

Background

Reliable information on the prevalence of hypertension is crucial in the development of health policies for prevention, control, and early diagnosis of this condition. This study describes the prevalence of hypertension among Costa Rican elderly, and identifies co-factors associated with its prevalence, unawareness and treatment.

Methods

The prevalence of hypertension is estimated for the Costa Rican elderly. Measurement error is assessed, and factors associated with high blood pressure are explored. Data for this study came from a nationally representative sample of about 2,800 individuals from CRELES (Costa Rica: Longevity and Healthy Aging Study). Two blood pressure measures were collected using digital monitors. Self reports of previous diagnosis, and medications taken were also recorded as part of the study.

Results

No evidence of information bias was found among interviewers, or over time. Hypertension prevalence in elderly Costa Ricans was found to be 65% (Males = 60%, Females = 69%). Twenty-five percent of the studied population did not report previous diagnoses of hypertension, but according to our measurement they had high blood pressure. The proportion of unaware men is higher than the proportion of unaware women (32% vs. 20%). The main factors associated with hypertension are: age, being overweight or obese, and family history of hypertension. For men, current smokers are 3 times more likely to be unaware of their condition than non smokers. Both men and women are less likely to be unaware of their condition if they have a family history of hypertension. Those women who are obese, diabetic, have suffered heart disease or stroke, or have been home visited by community health workers are less likely to be unaware of their hypertension. The odds of being treated are higher in educated individuals, those with a family history of hypertension, elderly with diabetes or those who have had heart disease.

Conclusion

Sex differences in terms of hypertension prevalence, unawareness, and treatment in elderly people have been found. Despite national programs for hypertension detection and education, unawareness of hypertension remains high, particularly among elderly men. Modifiable factors identified to be associated with prevalence such as obesity and alcohol intake could be used in educational programs aimed at the detection and treatment of those individuals who have the condition.