A quality of care assessment for women of childbearing potential with epilepsy in Bhutan: An observational study

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE

In lower-middle income countries such as Bhutan, the treatment gap for epilepsy is over 50% as compared to a treatment gap of less than 10% in high-income countries. We aim to analyze the quality of epilepsy care for women of childbearing potential in Bhutan using the Quality Indicators in Epilepsy Treatment (QUIET) tool, and to assess the usefulness of the tool's section for women with active epilepsy (WWE) in the Bhutanese setting.

METHODS

A prospective convenience cohort was enrolled in Thimphu, Paro, Punakha, and Wangdue, Kingdom of Bhutan, in 2022. Bhutanese women of childbearing potential at the time of enrollment (18-44 years old) were evaluated for the diagnosis of active epilepsy and underwent a structured survey-based interview with Bhutanese staff. Participants were surveyed on their epilepsy, pregnancy, and antiseizure medicine (ASM) histories. The clinical history and quality of epilepsy care of adult WWE were assessed using a section of the QUIET tool for women, an instrument originally developed by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs to analyze the quality of epilepsy care for American adults.

RESULTS

There were 82 Bhutanese WWE of childbearing potential, with mean age of 30.6 years at enrollment (range 18-44, standard deviation (SD) 6.6) and mean age of 20.3 years at epilepsy diagnosis (range 3-40, SD 8.0)). 39 % (n = 32) had a high school or above level of education, and 42 % (n = 34) were employed. 35 % (n = 29) reported a seizure within the prior week, and 88 % (n = 72) reported a seizure within the prior year. 49 % (n = 40) of participants experienced > 100 lifetime seizures. All but one participant took antiseizure medications (ASMs). At enrollment, participants presently took no (n = 1), one (n = 3), two (n = 37), three (n = 25), four (n = 11), or over five (n = 5) ASMs. The most common ASMs taken were levetiracetam (n = 40), phenytoin (n = 27), carbamazepine (n = 23), phenobarbital (n = 22), and sodium valproate (n = 20). 61 % of all WWE took folic acid. Of the 40 previously pregnant WWE, eight (20 %) took folic acid during any time of their pregnancy. 35 % (n = 29) used betel nut (doma, quid) and 53 % (n = 21) of pregnant WWE used betel nut during pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on data about WWE participants' ASM, supplement, and substance use, our study identified the high use of first generation ASMs (including valproate), frequently in polytherapy, and betel nut use as treatment gaps in women of childbearing potential age with active epilepsy in Bhutan. To address these gaps for locations such as Bhutan, we propose modifications to the QUIET tool's "Chronic Epilepsy Care for Women" section.

Demographic risk factors for extra-pulmonary tuberculosis: a rising public health threat in Bhutan

BACKGROUND

Recently, extra-pulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) has been increasingly reported in Bhutan, rising from 26% in 2001 to 39% in 2010. In 2016, almost half (49%) of all reported TB cases were classified as EPTB. Thus, this study was conducted to understand the epidemiology and identify risk factors contributing to increasing notification of EPTB in Bhutan.

METHODS

A case-control study was conducted by recruiting all 110 cases of nationally notified EPTB (Extrapulmonary bacteriologically confirmed/EPBC) as cases and 235 Pulmonary TB (Pulmonary bacteriologically confirmed/PBC) as controls. Data were collected on socio-demography, clinical and diagnostic, behavioral and lifestyle and environmental exposures using a structured questionnaire between April and September, 2018.

RESULTS

The median age of the cases was 25 years, ranged 9-79 years. Lymphatic TB was predominant (n = 78; 70.91%) followed by genitourinary TB (n = 4 (3.64%). The likelihood of EPTB decreased with increase in age (p = 0.023). The odds of EPTB in females was 1.65 times higher than the males (p = 0.038). Increase in Body Mass Index (adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 1.1; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.052-1.200) and urban residency were (AOR 1.6; 95% CI 1.016-2.805) were found to have higher odds of developing EPTB.

CONCLUSION

Females, urban residents, and those with higher BMI are at increased risk of developing EPTB. These at-risk groups can be used to target limited public health resources to control EPTB in Bhutan.

Prevalence of Suicidal Behavior Among Students in South-East Asia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVES

Estimation of rates of suicidal behaviors (ideation, plan, and attempt) would help to understand the burden and prioritize prevention strategies. However, no attempt to assess suicidal behavior among students was identified in South-East Asia (SEA). We aimed to assess the prevalence of suicidal behavior (ideation, plan, and attempt) among students in SEA.

METHODS

We followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines and registered the protocol in PROSPERO (CRD42022353438). We searched in Medline, Embase, and PsycINFO and performed meta-analyses to pool the lifetime, 1-year, and point prevalence rates for suicidal ideation, plans, and attempts. We considered the duration of a month for point prevalence.

RESULTS

The search identified 40 separate populations from which 46 were included in the analyses, as some studies included samples from multiple countries. The pooled prevalence of suicidal ideation was 17.4% (confidence interval [95% CI], 12.4%-23.9%) for lifetime, 9.33% (95% CI, 7.2%-12%) for the past year, and 4.8% (95% CI, 3.6%-6.4%) for the present time. The pooled prevalence of suicide plans was 9% (95% CI, 6.2%-12.9%) for lifetime, 7.3% (95% CI, 5.1%-10.3%) for the past year, and 2.3% (95% CI, 0.8%-6.7%) for the present time. The pooled prevalence of suicide attempts was 5.2% (95% CI, 3.5%-7.8%) for lifetime and 4.5% (95% CI, 3.4%-5.8%) for the past year. Higher rates of suicide attempts in the lifetime were noted in Nepal (10%) and Bangladesh (9%), while lower rates were reported in India (4%) and Indonesia (5%).

CONCLUSIONS

Suicidal behaviors are a common phenomenon among students in the SEA region. These findings call for integrated, multisectoral efforts to prevent suicidal behaviors in this group.

Aversive Reaction Between Disulfiram and Betel Quid Among Inpatients With Alcohol Use Disorder in Bhutan: A Preliminary Study

Betel quid (BQ) is commonly used in the Asia-Pacific region. Disulfiram is prescribed for people with alcohol use disorders (PwAUDs) after the completion of detoxification as an alternative to rehabilitation. This prospective observational study reported the aversive reactions and common symptoms of disulfiram and BQ in PwAUDs. Participants included PwAUDs admitted to the psychiatric ward at the Jigme Dorji Wangchuck National Referral Hospital for detoxification, who were on Disulfiram and using BQ at the same time. Aversive reactions between disulfiram and BQ were observed for 100 patients over a year. Twenty participants showed aversive reactions between BQ and disulfiram. Common symptoms included sweating, diarrhea, dizziness, tremors, palpitations, shortness of breath, nausea and vomiting, and headache. Since PwAUDs in Bhutan are inducted on disulfiram after detoxification, and most use BQ simultaneously, this study will help inform health care providers to educate people about the aversive reactions of disulfiram and BQ.

Depression, sleep quality, and social isolation among people with epilepsy in Bhutan: A cross-sectional study

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to analyze the possible contributions of seizure burden, sleep quality, and social integration to depression among people with epilepsy (PWE) in Bhutan.

METHODS

Bhutan is a lower-middle-income country in Southeast Asia with a public healthcare system without neurologists. People with epilepsy were prospectively recruited from psychiatrist-run epilepsy clinics at the National Referral Hospital in the capital city of Thimphu. Adult participants with epilepsy were interviewed for clinical history, sleep quality using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, social networks using the Berkman-Syme Social Network Index, and depressive symptoms using the Patient Health Questionnaire - 9 (PHQ-9). A multivariable regression model was built to assess the relationship between depression as an outcome and the possible contributors of sleep quality, sex, and seizure in the prior month.

RESULTS

Out of 80 participants (39 women, mean age: 29.4 years old, range: 18-56 years, 58 [73%] with a seizure in the previous month), 33% had poor sleep quality, 68% were socially isolated, 30% had a mild depressive symptom burden or more, and 18% reported suicidal ideation at the time of their interview. Women had a higher average PHQ-9 score versus men, which showed a trend towards statistical significance (5.6 versus 3.3 PHQ-9 points, p = 0.07), and on average met criteria for mild depression. Social integration was not significantly associated with sleep quality and had no relationship with depressive burden. There was a small positive correlation between poorer sleep quality and depressive symptoms which showed a trend towards statistical significance (r = 0.21, p = 0.06). In a multivariable regression, poor sleep quality was associated with higher depressive symptom burden, adjusting for participant sex and having a seizure in the previous month (p = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Our exploratory study disentangles the multilayered psychosocial burden of disease experienced by PWE in Bhutan, a lower-middle-income country with access to antiseizure medications and psychiatrists but not expert epilepsy services or human resources. Further investigation into the interrelationships among social isolation, poor sleep quality, depression, and seizure burden could identify preventable and remediable constituents of this burden.

A qualitative study on knowledge, perception, and practice related to non-communicable diseases in relation to happiness among rural and urban residents in Bhutan

PURPOSE

Bhutan, known as a country of happiness, has experienced rapid social changes and the increasing burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) that can impact health and happiness. To inform future NCD prevention programs in Bhutan, this study explores knowledge, perception, and the practices of Bhutanese related to NCDs in the context of the philosophy of happiness.

METHODOLOGY

Research was conducted in rural and urban communities of Bhutan in 2017 among 79 inhabitants of both genders, aged ≥18. Participants were recruited through purposive sampling with the data collected by in-depth interviews, participatory observation, and anthropometric measurements. Data were analyzed by thematic analysis.

RESULTS/DISCUSSION

Across participants, health was considered as an important element of "happiness". However, lifestyle-related NCD risk factors prevailed due to the lack of effective education programs on NCDs and thus the lack of practical knowledge for NCD prevention across society. We further found that the value of happiness "finding happiness in any situation is virtue" was universal as well as other traditional values and customs, shaping people's health behaviors. From these observations, it is recommended that more practical NCD education/prevention programs should be urgently introduced in Bhutan that involve multiple generations, religion authorities, educational settings, and medical services.

ORIGINALITY

This is the first comprehensive qualitative study on the NCD-related lifestyle risks among Bhutanese concerning the concept of happiness.

Missed opportunities for epilepsy surgery referrals in Bhutan: A cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To quantify the missed opportunities for epilepsy surgery referral and operationalize the Canadian Appropriateness of Epilepsy Surgery (CASES) tool for use in a lower income country without neurologists.

METHODS

People with epilepsy were recruited from the Jigme Dorji Wangchuck National Referral Hospital from 2014-2016. Each participant was clinically evaluated, underwent at least one standard EEG, and was invited to undergo a free 1.5 T brain MRI. Clinical variables required for CASES were operationalized for use in lower-income populations and entered into the free, anonymous website tool.

FINDINGS

There were 209 eligible participants (mean age 28.4 years, 56 % female, 179 with brain MRI data). Of the 179 participants with brain MRI, 43 (24.0 %) were appropriate for an epilepsy surgery referral, 21 (11.7 %) were uncertain, and 115 (64.3 %) were inappropriate for referral. Among the 43 appropriate referral cases, 36 (83.7 %) were "very high" and 7 (16.3 %) were "high" priorities for referral. For every unit increase in surgical appropriateness, quality of life (QoL) dropped by 2.3 points (p-value <0.001). Among the 68 patients who took >1 antiepileptic drug prior to enrollment, 42 (61.8 %) were appropriate referrals, 14 (20.6 %) were uncertain, and 12 (17.6 %) were inappropriate.

CONCLUSION

Approximately a quarter of Bhutanese epilepsy patients who completed evaluation in this national referral-based hospital should have been evaluated for epilepsy surgery, sometimes urgently. Surgical services for epilepsy are an emerging priority for improving global epilepsy care and should be scaled up through international partnerships and clinician support algorithms like CASES to avoid missed opportunities.

Policy and governance to address depression and suicide in Bhutan: The national suicide-prevention strategy

Suicide and mental disorders are a growing public health issue in Bhutan, due in part to a rapidly transitioning society. The burden of suicide has been recognized by the Royal Government of Bhutan and, as a result, it introduced the country's first ever national suicide-prevention plan in 2015. The 3-year action plan takes a holistic approach to making suicide-prevention services a top social priority, through strengthening suicide-prevention policies, promoting socially protective measures, mitigating risk factors and reaching out to individuals who are at risk of suicide or affected by incidents of suicide. This article documents Bhutan's policy and governance for addressing depression and suicide within the context of its national suicide-prevention strategy, examines progress and highlights lessons for future directions in suicide prevention. Since the endorsement of the 3-year action plan by the prime minister's cabinet, the implementation of suicide-prevention measures has been accelerated through a high-level national steering committee. Activities include suicide-prevention actions by sectors such as health, education, monastic communities and police; building capacity of gatekeepers; and improving the suicide information system to inform policies and decision-making. Suicide-prevention activities have become the responsibility of local governments, paving the way for suicide prevention as an integral mandate across sectors and at grass-root levels in the Kingdom of Bhutan.

An approach to diabetes prevention and management: The Bhutan experience

Bhutan has been witnessing a trend of increasing diabetes in recent years. The increase is attributed to a rise in risk factors such as overweight, high blood pressure, unhealthy diet and sedentary lifestyle among the population. To address the rising burden, the health-services response has been to establish diabetes clinics in all hospitals and grade one basic health units. People visiting the health centres who have high risk factors and symptoms for diabetes are screened using the World Health Organization cut-off level for blood glucose. They are then classified into prediabetes and diabetes. Accordingly, diet, medicine and physical activity are recommended as per their body mass index. To improve prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases, which include diabetes, the country piloted the WHO Package of Essential Noncommunicable (PEN) disease interventions for primary health care in low-resource settings in 2009, to promote early screening, treatment and follow-up, and adopted it in 2013. The WHO PEN has now been successfully integrated into the primary health-care system nationwide. It is planned that diabetes clinics will be upgraded to NCD clinics.

The economic burden of epilepsy in Bhutan

OBJECTIVE

To assess the economic impact of epilepsy in Bhutan, a lower-middle-income country with a universal health care system, but with limited access to neurological care.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted of patients with epilepsy at the Jigme Dorji Wangchuk National Referral Hospital from January to August 2016. Data were collected on clinical features, cost of care, impact of epilepsy on school or work and household economic status of participants and matched comparisons (a sibling or neighbour from a household without epilepsy).

RESULTS

A total of 172 individuals were included in the study (130 adults and 42 children). One-third of adults and 20 (48%) children had seizures at least once per month. Mean direct out-of-pocket cost for epilepsy care was 6054 Bhutanese Ngultrum (BTN; 91 USD) per year, of which transportation formed the greatest portion (53%). Direct costs of epilepsy were an average of 3.2% of annual household income. Adults missed 6.8 (standard deviation [SD]: 9.0) days of work or school per year on average, and children missed 18.6 (SD: 34.7) days of school. Among adults, 23 (18%) abandoned employment or school because of epilepsy; seven children (18%) stopped school because of epilepsy. Households with a person with epilepsy had a lower monthly per-person income (6434 BTN) than comparison households without epilepsy (8892 BTN; P = 0.027).

CONCLUSIONS

In Bhutan, despite universal health care services, households of people with epilepsy face a significant economic burden. With many adults and children unable to attend school or work, epilepsy causes a major disruption to individuals' livelihoods.

Contraception, pregnancy, and peripartum experiences among women with epilepsy in Bhutan

INTRODUCTION

Reports on the reproductive health of women with epilepsy (WWE) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are limited. Bhutan is a lower income country with a high estimated prevalence of epilepsy and no out-of-pocket payment requirements for health visits or medications.

METHODS

We developed a 10-category survey to interview WWE ages 20-59 years in the Kingdom of Bhutan to understand their contraceptive use and peripartum experiences. WWE were recruited from 2016-2017 from an existing epilepsy cohort and their reproductive health data were merged with epilepsy and socioeconomic data obtained from initial clinical evaluations performed between 2014 and 2016.

RESULTS

Of the 134 WWE eligible for the study, 94 were reachable and there was 1 refusal to participate (response rate 99% among reachable WWE; 69% of all WWE in the cohort). Of the 93 WWE (median age 27 years, range 20-52), 50 (54%) reported prior pregnancies. Of the entire cohort, 55 women responded on contraception: 26 (47%) WWE had never used contraception in their lifetime. Of the 29 WWE who had ever used contraception, the most commonly reported form was male condoms (14/29, 48%), followed by depot medroxyprogesterone acetate injections (13/29, 45%), and intrauterine devices (5/29, 17%). Sixty-three percent of WWE recalled receiving information on family planning (31 of 49). Of the 50 WWE with prior pregnancies, 37 of 46 (80%) used folic acid; 6 WWE reported commencing it in the first trimester while 29 WWE began supplementation in the second trimester. Primary school education or higher was associated with folic acid supplementation during pregnancy (26/29 vs. 11/17, p=0.040). Epilepsy affected at least one of the pregnancies in 38 of the cases (76%) with an average of 2.3 pregnancies per woman). There was a total of 86 pregnancies and an average inter-pregnancy interval of 3.5 years. Ninety-five percent of women attended prenatal care (36/38), 22% had at least one miscarriage (8/37), 14% had at least one pre-term delivery (5/36), and 21% had Caesarean sections (8/38). Seventeen of 38 (45%) of WWE had seizures during pregnancy. A majority of WWE (97%, 37 of 38) with a prior pregnancy reported breastfeeding their infant.

CONCLUSIONS

Nearly half of Bhutanese WWE did not use contraception; among those who used it, male condoms were most common but 11% were at risk of potential drug-drug interactions between oral contraception and enzyme-inducing antiepileptic drugs. Bhutanese WWE had a high rate of prenatal visits. Folic acid was prescribed in most pregnant WWE but the majority began supplementation in the second trimester. The number of pregnancies in WWE in Bhutan (2.3 per woman) was comparable to the number of children per women in Bhutan (2.3). Breastfeeding was practiced almost universally. Points of intervention may include pre-conception initiation of folic acid, optimization of dosing of AEDs with contraceptives, guidelines for peripartum seizure treatment, and establishment of a prospective registry for WWE and their offspring.

Areca catechu (palm tree) nut chewing and seizures: An observational study

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to report the impact of chronic abuse of Areca catechu nut wrapped in leaf (also known as doma, quid, paan), the fourth most commonly abused psychoactive substance worldwide, on the frequency of seizures among people with epilepsy.

METHODS

People with clinically diagnosed epilepsy (>14years old) residing in the Kingdom of Bhutan were surveyed for self-reported Areca catechu use, demographic variables, epilepsy characteristics, and seizure frequency. The relationship between seizure frequency in the prior month and chewing Areca catechu, adjusted for various confounders, was analyzed using multivariable regression models.

RESULTS

There were 152 people with epilepsy, including 50 chewers (33%) and 102 (67%) nonchewers. The median duration of chewing A. catechu was 62months (25th, 75th percentiles: 24, 120months). Chewers consumed an average of three nuts daily. There was no significant difference between chewers and nonchewers in the mean age, proportion of male vs. female, age at first epileptic seizure, or number of antiepileptic drugs presently taken; chewers were more likely to be rural dwellers (p=0.042). After adjustment for all of the above variables, on average, chewers had 58.7% fewer [95%CI: (-79.4, -17.0)] seizures in the prior month, equating to 2.1 fewer [95% CI: (-3.9, -0.3)] seizures.

CONCLUSIONS

Our observational study suggests that the social custom of chewing Areca catechu nut is associated with reduced seizure frequency among people with epilepsy. This association may be due to its natural stimulant properties, a novel antiepileptic property of the nut, or has another, yet unknown explanation.

Yield of Brain MRI in Clinically Diagnosed Epilepsy in the Kingdom of Bhutan: A Prospective Study

BACKGROUND

People with epilepsy (PWE) in low- and middle-income countries may not access the health resources that are considered optimal for epilepsy diagnosis. The diagnostic yield of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has not been well studied in these settings.

OBJECTIVES

To report the diagnostic yield of brain MRI and identify clinical associations of abnormal MRI findings among PWE in a neurocysticercosis-endemic, resource-limited setting and to identify the proportion and putative structural brain causes of drug-resistant epilepsy.

METHODS

PWE were prospectively enrolled at the Jigme Dorji Wangchuck National Referral Hospital in Bhutan (2014-2015). Each participant completed clinical questionnaires and a 1.5-Tesla brain MRI. Each MRI was reviewed by at least 1 radiologist and neurologist in Bhutan and the United States. A working definition of drug-resistant epilepsy for resource-limited settings was given as (a) seizures for >1 year, (b) at least 1 seizure in the prior year, and (c) presently taking 2 or more antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). Logistic regression models were constructed to test the cross-sectional association of an abnormal brain MRI with clinical variables.

FINDINGS

A total of 217 participants (125 [57%] female; 54 [25%] < 18 years old; 199 [92%] taking AEDs; 154 [71%] with a seizure in the prior year) were enrolled. There was a high prevalence of abnormal brain MRIs (176/217, 81%). Mesial temporal sclerosis was the most common finding (n = 115, 53%, including 24 children), exceeding the number of PWE with neurocysticercosis (n = 26, 12%, including 1 child) and congenital/perinatal abnormalities (n = 29, 14%, including 14 children). The number of AEDs (odds ratio = .59, P = .03) and duration of epilepsy (odds ratio = 1.11, P = .02) were significantly associated with an abnormal MRI. Seizure in the prior month was associated with the presence of mesial temporal sclerosis (odds ratio = .47, P = .01). A total of 25 (12%) participants met our definition of drug-resistant epilepsy, with mesial temporal sclerosis (n = 10), congenital malformations (n = 5), and neurocysticercosis (n = 4) being the more common findings.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of abnormalities on brain MRI for PWE in resource-limited settings is high as a result of a diffuse range of etiologies, most commonly mesial temporal sclerosis. Drug-resistant epilepsy accounted for 12% of the referral population in a conservative estimation.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding epilepsy in the Kingdom of Bhutan

OBJECTIVE

To assess the knowledge, attitudes and practices of epilepsy among healthcare workers (HCWs) and people with epilepsy (PWE) living in Bhutan.

METHODS

A survey with similar questions was distributed to HCWs and PWE (2014-2015). Responses were compared between the two groups. A Stigma Scale in Epilepsy Score was tested for an independent association with patient age, sex, years of education and presence of seizure freedom using regression models.

RESULTS

PWE (n=177), when compared to HCWs (n=75), were more likely to believe that epilepsy is contagious; epilepsy results from karma or past actions; PWE need help in school; and people with epilepsy have spiritual powers (p<0.05 for each comparison). Among people with epilepsy, a higher stigma score was independently associated with lower educational attainment (p=0.006) and presence of a seizure in the prior year (p=0.013), but not age, sex or anti-epileptic drug side effects.

CONCLUSIONS

While knowledge of epilepsy was overall fairly high, PWE more often held certain stigmatizing beliefs, including theories of contagion and a relationship between seizures and spiritual powers. Higher educational level and seizure freedom were associated with lower stigma, underscoring their importance in stigma reduction.

Mental health and psychosocial aspects of disaster preparedness in Bhutan

Bhutan has taken the initiative in developing a comprehensive guideline on disaster risk preparedness and management in response to several minor disasters, namely earthquakes and flash floods in the country during the last couple of years. It is now widely accepted that the psychological symptoms of trauma resulting from devastation to lives and livelihood of affected people remain much longer and sometimes throughout their entire life span unless taken care of. Therefore, it is important to include psychosocial components of mental health protection and treatment of the affected persons in disaster risk preparedness and management to make it a comprehensive package. A four-tier system of mental health intervention and counselling has been proposed in line with the existing healthcare system and resources available in the country to make it sustainable. At the core of this programme is the mobilizing and training of volunteers from the community on psychosocial intervention, counselling and rehabilitation, backed up by three layers of trained health workers and mental health professionals.

Attractiveness of various combinations of colors and shapes to females and males of Bactrocera minax (Diptera: Tephritidae) in a commercial mandarin grove in Bhutan

Bactrocera minax (Enderlein) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a major pest of citrus fruit in the region from Nepal through to southwestern China. In tests on wild adult populations of B. minax in a mandarin, Citrus reticulata Blanco, orchard in western Bhutan, both males and females were more attracted to 50-mm-diameter spheres than to 50-mm discs of the same color. Furthermore, they were more attracted to spheres colored with orange or green-yellow mixtures than to similar spheres colored red, yellow, green, blue, black, or white. The UV reflectance from the orange (600-650 nm) and yellow-green mixtures (530 nm) was similar to that proposed byProkopy (1977) as eliciting strong attractant responses in other species of Tephritidae.

Seasonal phenology of Bactrocera minax (Diptera: Tephritidae) in western Bhutan

The Chinese citrus fruit fly, Bactrocera (Tetradacus) minax (Enderlein), is one of the major citrus pests in Bhutan and can cause >50% mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) fruit drop. As part of the development of a management strategy for the fly in mandarin orchards, population monitoring and experimental manipulations were carried out to determine: (i) adult emergence period; (ii) adult phenology patterns; (iii) period of crop susceptibility; and (iv) period from fruit drop to pupation. In western Bhutan, adult flies emerge from the overwintering pupal stage in late April/early May. Most flies are mature by the end of May and it is inferred that mating occurs at this time: from the beginning of June males rapidly disappear from the population and by mid- to late June are rare or absent from traps. Mature females are present in the mandarin crop at the beginning of June, but very little oviposition occurs until mid-June, while most damage has occurred by mid-July. Initiation of oviposition into mandarins is almost certainly linked to crop phenology. Adult flies disappear from the orchard system during August. After fruit drop, larvae were recorded leaving the fruit to pupate within 13 days. The use of early to mid-season protein bait sprays and/or targeted use of systemic insecticides during the one month oviposition period, plus the removal of fallen fruit once every 10 days, are recommended as control strategies.

First Report of "Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus", the Agent of Citrus Huanglongbing (Ex-greening) in Bhutan

Mandarin (Citrus reticulata) is the most important cash crop in Bhutan and plantations total approximately 1.8 million trees (Ministry of Agriculture, Thimphu, Bhutan, 2000). Most trees are a local mandarin variety. Seedlings trees are produced by local farmers or supplied by Druk Seed Nursery. Mandarin seedlings have also been introduced from India. In the mid-1990s, mandarin trees growing in Punakha Valley and Wangdue districts began showing symptoms of decline that included sparse yellow foliage and shoot die-back. After initial surveys in 2000, huanglongbing (HLB) was suspected as the cause of declining trees based on symptomatology and presence of the psyllid vector Diaphorina citri, but no confirmatory tests were carried out. In August 2002, we surveyed eight locations in the valley from Rimchu (North) to Kamichu (South). HLB-like leaf mottle symptoms were observed on declining mandarin trees at all locations at altitudes ranging from 700 to 1,450 m. Orchards around Punakha (1,350m) in the center of the valley were more severely affected. Symptoms were also observed on Mexican lime (Citrus aurantifolia), citron (Citrus medica), and on tangelo trees (Minneola, Seminola, and Iyo) introduced originally as certified HLB-free budwoods from Corsica, France and grafted onto Rangpur lime at the Wangdue Research Center (1,300m). Leaves were collected from symptomatic trees and three declining mandarin trees without characteristic leaf mottle symptoms. Two specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests for the detection of HLB Liberibacter species (1,2) were carried out on 16 DNA samples extracted from leaf mid-veins of 10 mandarins, two Mexican limes, three tangelos, and one citron tree. "Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus" was readily detected by both PCR assays in all but two samples (one mandarin with noncharacteristic symptoms and citron) and all sampled orchards. The presence in the Wangdue Research Center of liberibacter infected trees, propagated from certified HLB-free budwoods, suggests that natural spread of the HLB by D. citri is occuring, as the psyllid had been identified previously in the Punakha area by Bhutanese Entomologists. It is likely that the disease was originally introduced as infected planting material although its source has not been determined. References: (1) A. Hocquellet et al. Mol. Cell. Probes 13:373, 1999. (2) S. Jagoueix et al. Mol. Cell.Probes 10:43,1996.