Controlling onchocerciasis by community-directed, ivermectin-treatment programmes in Uganda: why do some communities succeed and others fail?

In Uganda, human onchocerciasis is controlled by annual, mass, community-directed, ivermectin-treatment programmes (CDITP) in all endemic communities where the prevalence of the disease is > or = 30%. This is a practical, long-term and cost-effective strategy. In some communities, this system succeeds in providing treatment at the desired level of coverage (i.e. 90% of the annual treatment objective, which is itself equivalent to all those individuals eligible to take ivermectin). Other communities, however, fail to reach this target. The aim of the present study was to determine the factors that were significantly associated with success or failure in achieving this target. The data analysed were answers to a questionnaire completed by 10 household heads randomly selected from each of 64 randomly selected endemic communities (of which 36 succeeded and 28 failed to reach their coverage target) in the four districts of Kabale, Moyo, Nebbi and Rukungiri. Among the programme-related factors investigated, success was associated, at a statistical level of significance (P < or = 0.05), with involvement of community members in: (1) decisions about the execution of the programme; (2) attendance at health-education sessions; (3) selection of the community-based distributors (CDB); and (4) rewarding CBD in kind. In general, the involvement of community members in the planning and execution of a CDITP (and the resultant sense of pride in community ownership) was more likely to produce successful results than when external health workers or even community leaders or local councils took responsibility.

The community-directed, ivermectin-treatment programme for onchocerciasis control in Uganda--an evaluative study (1993-1997)

The first 5 years of a community-directed, ivermectin-treatment programme, to control onchocerciasis in 1805 endemic communities in 10 districts in Uganda, are evaluated. Each year, the desired treatment coverage of the population eligible to take invermectin (90%) was achieved in 42.6%-51% of the 1713 communities for which complete data were available; 67%-74.8% achieved 80% coverage. The annual cost per person treated with ivermectin (ACPTI) was much higher in the districts with small populations to be treated (< 15,000) than in those with large populations (> 40,000) (U.S.$0.40 v. U.S.$0.10 or less). The community members' acceptance of the programme was related to their attendance at health-education sessions (P = 0.009), and their participation in the mobilisation of other community members increased greatly when they were allowed to take part in the selection of the community-based distributors (CBD) and the choice of treatment sites. The overall target ratio of one CBD/71 families was attained by 1997. However, the failure of some trained CBD to participate in the treatment exercise prevented some communities achieving 90% treatment coverage. Providing CBD with cash incentives or externally derived incentives 'in kind' proved counter-productive whereas locally generated incentives 'in kind' were simply regarded as the normal obligations of the community. District health staff successfully integrated the programme with their other health commitments, but the involvement of CBD in other programmes proved detrimental to their performance. Other constraints identified were rebel insurgency in some areas, and abnormally heavy rains in hilly areas with poor roads.

Community-directed, ivermectin-treatment programmes for onchocerciasis control in Uganda: the selection and validation of indicators for monitoring sustainability at the district level

The selection and validation of indicators for predicting and monitoring sustainment in community-directed, ivermectin-treatment programmes (CDITP) at the community level in the Kabale, Kisoro and Rukungiri districts of Uganda have already been reported. The aim of the present study was to select and validate similar indicators at the district level, in the same districts over the same 4-year period. Three dependent-variable scales of programme sustainability (PS), PS1, PS2 and PS3, were compared by district. As at the community level, Rukungiri district clearly performed better than Kabale or Kisoro. Cost variables compiled at the district level and the ratios of numbers of community-based distributors (CBD) to community members were used as input variables in regression and correlation models, with PS1, PS2, and PS3 as outcome variables. In the regression model, cost of training CBD was found to be statistically significant (P = 0.0186). This variable also scored 100% on a scale for programme-indicator sensitivity and hence was selected as a helpful indicator. In the correlation model, cost of health education of community members had a weak relationship with PS1 (P = 0.0662). Cost of training CBD had a significant negative correlation with PS2 (P = 0.0186), indicating that reducing the cost of training would facilitate sustainability. PS3 showed weak negative correlations with cost of health education of community members (P = 0.0586) and cost/person treated in the district (P = 0.0584). Sustainment of CDITP might be better, therefore, if the costs per person could be reduced. As correlation relationships may not be linear, however, they were not considered particularly useful in the selection of helpful indicators.

The selection and validation of indicators for monitoring progress towards self-sustainment in community-directed, ivermectin-treatment programmes for onchocerciasis control in Uganda

A retrospective analysis was made of quantitative data on coverage obtained over 4 years of annual ivermectin treatment of the eligible populations (approximately 56,000 individuals) of 71 communities with endemic onchocerciasis in the Kabale, Kisoro and Rukungiri districts of Uganda. The objective was to formulate methods for defining sustainability in community-directed, ivermectin-treatment programmes (CDITP). Three dependent-variable scales of programme sustainability (PS), PS1, PS2, and PS3, were tested for statistical significance by analysis of variance. The inhabitants of a random sample of 230 households drawn from 23 communities [each containing one community leader and one community-based distributor (CBD)] were then invited to answer a questionnaire covering seven independent variables. These variables were analysed in regression and correlation models, with the PS scales as dependent variables. In the regression model, only one variable, selection of CBD by community members (P = 0.038), which scored 100% on the scale of programme-indicator sensitivity, passed as a useful indicator for predicting the sustainability and monitoring the sustainment of CDITP at the community level. The same variable was also selected in the correlation model (P = 0.028). Although two other variables--involvement of CBD in other primary-health-care activities (P = 0.0594) and provision of incentives for the CBD (P = 0.0558)--showed weak negative associations with sustainability in the correlation model, they did not exhibit a linear relationship with it and cannot therefore be used as valid indicators for predicting sustainability or monitoring sustainment.

Onchocerciasis control in Uganda: how can self-sustaining, community-based treatment with ivermectin be achieved?

In Uganda, the control of onchocerciasis by mass treatment with ivermectin (Mectizan) began in 1990 and has expanded greatly since 1992. The parties involved in the programme are the Uganda Ministry of Health and its National Onchocerciasis Task Force, the Mectizan Donation Programme, the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control, a number of non-governmental development organizations and the communities where the disease is endemic. Their aim is to make the programme self-sustaining, without further outside aid, within a period of 12 years. The methodology of the ivermectin-distribution programme, based on community-directed treatment, is outlined; the constraints under which the four co-operating parties have to work are described and the effects of the social changes produced by community-directed distribution are discussed, all in terms of influence on the achievement of a programme that will be able to sustain itself without the need for outside aid.