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Kurajica L, Ujević Bošnjak M, Novak Stankov M, Kinsela AS, Štiglić J, Waite DT, Capak K. Disinfection by-products in Croatian drinking water supplies with special emphasis on the water supply network in the city of Zagreb. J Environ Manage 2020; 276:111360. [PMID: 32927190 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of disinfection by-products (DBPs) was investigated in 48 drinking water systems across Croatia. Eleven DBPs were studied: chlorite (ClO2-), chlorate (ClO3-), four trihalomethanes (THMs), and five haloacetic acids (HAAs). Furthermore, an intensive sampling program was conducted in the distribution system in the city of Zagreb where, aside from DBP analyses, natural organic matter (NOM) was characterized using fluorescence spectroscopy. In the drinking waters examined across Croatia, DBP values were found in the range from 0.7 μg/L to 32.8 μg/L for THMs, below LOQ to 17.2 μg/L for HAAs (primarily di- and trichloroacetic acids), below LOQ to 720 μg/L for ClO2- and below LOQ to 431 μg/L for ClO3-. The results obtained showed higher chlorite concentrations in the systems treated with hypochlorite compared to systems treated with chlorine dioxide. DBPs in the Zagreb distribution network were generally low (the average values were below 6 μg/L and 2 μg/L for total THM and total HAA respectively). In contrast to our observations throughout Croatia, dibromoacetic acid (DBAA) was found to be the predominant HAA within Zagreb, most likely due to the degradation of chlorinated carboxylates (di-/tri-chloroacetic) in the network. Characterization of NOM by Parallel Factor Analysis (PARAFAC) fluorescence spectroscopy across the Zagreb network showed distinct temporal variations arising from groundwater inputs, as evident from variable humic-, tyrosine-, and tryptophan-like peaks. Statistical correlations between fluorescence data and DBPs highlight its potential for monitoring the presence of DBPs in distribution networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Kurajica
- Croatian Institute of Public Health, Rockefellerova 7, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - M Ujević Bošnjak
- Croatian Institute of Public Health, Rockefellerova 7, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - M Novak Stankov
- University of Zagreb, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Marulićev Trg 19, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - A S Kinsela
- Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - J Štiglić
- Croatian Institute of Public Health, Rockefellerova 7, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - D T Waite
- Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - K Capak
- Croatian Institute of Public Health, Rockefellerova 7, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
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Waite DT, Cabalo E, Chau D, Sproull JF. A comparison of flux chambers and ambient air sampling to measure gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane volatilisation from canola (Brassica napus) fields. Chemosphere 2007; 68:1074-81. [PMID: 17376505 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.01.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2006] [Revised: 01/25/2007] [Accepted: 01/26/2007] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The insecticide gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (gamma-HCH) is primarily used in Canada in treatments of canola (Brassica napus) seed. It has been shown that gamma-HCH so applied will volatilise with 12-30% entering the atmosphere within 6 wk after the seed is planted. Both flux chambers and high-volume air samplers were used to measure gamma-HCH volatilisation from a canola field and the results from each method compared. Daily samples were collected from three flux chambers located on the field. gamma-HCH was found in the air of the chambers on the first day after planting. Volatilisation rates were low for the first 7d (40.0 mg ha(-1) wk(-1)) but increased during the second week (143.8 mg ha(-1) wk(-1)). This was consistent with previous studies. Weekly composite air samples, from three heights above the canola field, were used to calculate volatilisation rates from the field. These were 190 mg ha(-1) wk(-1) (week 1) and 420 mg ha(-1) wk(-1) (week 2). Soil temperatures in the open field were warmer than those under the flux chambers and this may have contributed to the higher ambient air measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- D T Waite
- Environment Canada, 300-2365 Albert Street, Regina, Sask., Canada S4P 4K1.
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Waite DT, Droneck NR, Tuduri L, Sproull JF, Chau DF, Quiring DV. Comparison of active versus passive atmospheric samplers for some current-use pesticides. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 2005; 74:1011-8. [PMID: 16158834 DOI: 10.1007/s00128-005-0681-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D T Waite
- Environment Canada, 300-2365 Albert Street, Regina, SK, S4P 4K1 Canada
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Waite DT, Bailey P, Sproull JF, Quiring DV, Chau DF, Bailey J, Cessna AJ. Atmospheric concentrations and dry and wet deposits of some herbicides currently used on the Canadian Prairies. Chemosphere 2005; 58:693-703. [PMID: 15621183 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.09.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2004] [Revised: 09/17/2004] [Accepted: 09/23/2004] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
High volume air sampling in the Canadian Prairies was used to characterize atmospheric concentrations for 10 herbicides (alachlor, atrazine, ethalfluralin, metolachlor, 2,4-D, dicamba, bromoxynil, MCPA, trifluralin, and triallate) along a 500-km north-south transect. Atmospheric concentration measurements at various altitudes identified that of the six herbicides present in the highest concentrations, triallate was strongly influenced by local sources, while 2,4-D, dicamba, bromoxynil, MCPA and trifluralin were dominated by regional atmospheric transport. Concentrations of the herbicides measured at various altitudes were compared with dry deposition rates measured using a dry/wet deposition sampler and used to calculate deposition velocities V(d). The primary atmospheric transport mechanism for MCPA and bromoxynil was shown to be adsorption to particles dispersed in the atmosphere, with the same mechanism also confirmed for 2,4-D and dicamba, while trifluralin was shown to be transported mainly in the gas phase. This method of calculation indicated that transportation of triallate was influenced by particle adsorption. Weekly maximum atmospheric loadings of the major herbicides present in the Prairies were estimated to range from 73 kg for trifluralin to 541 kg for 2,4-D.
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Affiliation(s)
- D T Waite
- Environment Canada, 300-2365 Albert Street, Regina, Sask., Canada S4P 4K1.
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Waite DT, Cessna AJ, Grover R, Kerr LA, Snihura AD. Environmental concentrations of agricultural herbicides in Saskatchewan, Canada: bromoxynil, dicamba, diclofop, MCPA, and trifluralin. J Environ Qual 2004; 33:1616-1628. [PMID: 15356221 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2004.1616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Herbicides are the most commonly used group of agricultural pesticides on the Canadian Prairies and, in 1990, more than 20000 Mg of herbicides were applied in the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. The present paper reports on environmental concentrations of five herbicides currently used in the prairie region. The herbicides bromoxynil [3,5-dibromo-4-hydroxy-benzonitrile], dicamba [3,6-dichloro-o-anisic acid], diclofop [(RS)-2-[4-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)-phenoxy]propanoic acid], MCPA [(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)acetic acid], and trifluralin [alpha,alpha,alpha-trifluoro-2,6-dinitro-N,N-isopropyl-p-toluidine] were measured in the atmosphere, bulk atmospheric deposits, surface film, and dugout (pond) water at two sites near Regina, Saskatchewan, during 1989 and 1990. All five herbicides were detected in air and surface film and all but trifluralin were detected in the bulk atmospheric deposits and dugout water. Trifluralin was most frequently detected in air (79% of samples) whereas bromoxynil was present in maximum concentration (4.2 ng m(-3)). MCPA was present in maximum levels in bulk atmospheric (wet plus dry) deposits (2350 ng m(-2) d(-1)), surface film (390 ng m(-2)), and dugout water (330 ng L(-1)), whereas dicamba was most frequently detected in surface film (47%) and dugout water (97%). The highest quantities of the herbicides tended to be present during or immediately after the time of regional application.
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Affiliation(s)
- D T Waite
- Environment Canada, 300-2365 Albert Street, Regina, SK, Canada S4P 4K1.
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Waite DT, Snihura AD, Liu Y, Huang GH. Uptake of atmospheric mercury by deionized water and aqueous solutions of inorganic salts at acidic, neutral and alkaline pH. Chemosphere 2002; 49:341-351. [PMID: 12363314 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(02)00278-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is well known as a toxic environmental pollutant that is among the most highly bioconcentrated trace metals in the human food chain. The atmosphere is one of the most important media for the environmental cycling of mercury, since it not only receives mercury emitted from natural sources such as volcanoes and soil and water surfaces but also from anthropogenic sources such as fossil fuel combustion, mining and metal smelting. Although atmospheric mercury exists in different physical and chemical forms, as much as 90% can occur as elemental vapour Hg0, depending on the geographic location and time of year. Atmospheric mercury can be deposited to aquatic ecosystems through both wet (rain or snow) and dry (vapour adsorption and particulate deposition) processes. The purpose of the present study was to measure, under laboratory conditions, the rate of deposition of gaseous, elemental mercury (Hg0) to deionized water and to solutions of inorganic salt species of varying ionic strengths with a pH range of 2-12. In deionized water the highest deposition rates occurred at both low (pH 2) and high (pH 12). The addition of different species of salt of various concentrations for the most part had only slight effects on the absorption and retention of atmospheric Hg0. The low pH solutions of various salt concentrations and the high pH solutions of high salt concentrations tested in this study generally showed a greater tendency to absorb and retain atmospheric Hg0 than those at a pH closer to neutral.
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Waite DT, Cessna AJ, Grover R, Kerr LA, Snihura AD. Environmental concentrations of agricultural herbicides: 2,4-d and triallate. J Environ Qual 2002; 31:129-144. [PMID: 11837416 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2002.1290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The herbicides 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) and triallate [S-2,3,3-trichloroallyl di-isopropyl(thiocarbamate)] are extensively used to control broadleaf and wild oat (respectively) weed infestations in Canadian cereal crops. In 1990, for example, more than 3.8 million kg of 2,4-D and 2.7 million kg of triallate were applied in the three prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba). Maximum air concentrations of these two herbicides during the summers of 1989 and 1990 near Regina, Saskatchewan, were 3.90 ng m(-3) (2,4-D) and 60.04 ng m(-3) (triallate). Concentrations of these two herbicides were also measured in bulk atmospheric deposition (wet plus dry) and in farm pond water and associated surface film. Maximum measured levels of 2,4-D were 3550 ng m(-2) d(-1) (bulk deposition), 332 ng m(-2) (surface film), and 290 ng L(-1) (pond water). Maximum levels of triallate were 2300 ng m(-2) d(-1) (bulk deposition), 212 ng m(-2) (surface film), and 500 ng L(-1) (pond water). The highest quantities of the herbicides tended to be found during or immediately after the time of regional application. The movement of the herbicides in the environment will be discussed in relation to the four matrices studied.
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Waite DT, Gurprasad NP, Sproull JF, Quiring DV, Kotylak MW. Atmospheric movements of lindane (gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane) from canola fields planted with treated seed. J Environ Qual 2001; 30:768-775. [PMID: 11401266 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2001.303768x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Lindane (gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane [gamma-HCH]) is used as an insecticide in many countries. Concentrations of gamma-HCH have been found in air, water, soil, snow, and tissue samples throughout the world and concerns have been raised for its potential effects on human and ecosystem health. In Canada, gamma-HCH is primarily used as a treatment on canola (Brassica napus L) seed with an estimated 455.3 Mg applied in 1997 and 510.4 Mg in 1998. The purpose of this study was to measure gamma-HCH volatilization from fields planted with treated canola seed. Atmospheric dry and wet deposition and soil samples were collected for two growing seasons (1997 and 1998) from a canola field planted with treated seed. Atmospheric concentrations as high as 16.1 and 7.4 ng m(-3) were measured at 1 m above the canola field compared with maximum concentrations of 2.9 and 2.7 ng m(-3) measured above a grass field located 2 km away (1997 and 1998, respectively). On the basis of measurements made in this study it was estimated that between 12 and 30% of the gamma-HCH applied as canola seed treatment may volatilize and be released to the atmosphere. This would create an atmospheric loading of 66.4 to 188.8 Mg for the 6-wk period following planting, estimated from the quantity of seed sown on the Canadian prairies in 1998. Dry deposition rates and rain concentrations as high as 2,203 ng m(-2) d(-1) and 170 ng L(-1) were measured adjacent to the canola field.
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Cessna AJ, Waite DT, Kerr LA, Grover R. Duplicate sampling reproducibility of atmospheric residues of herbicides for paired pan and high-volume air samplers. Chemosphere 2000; 40:795-802. [PMID: 10718570 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(99)00259-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The reproducibility of collection of atmospheric residues of the herbicides 2,4-D and triallate as bulk (wet plus dry) deposition samples by paired pan samplers and as particulate (filter) and vapour (PUF/XAD-2 resin cartridge) samples by paired high-volume air samplers was determined. Variability of herbicide concentrations in paired bulk deposition samples was within 25% for 65 and 80% of the samples for 2,4-D and triallate, respectively, with approximately 90% of the paired samples being within a factor of 2 for both herbicides. The vapour samples of 2,4-D and triallate showed similar reproducibilities. The highest reproducibility was observed for the filter samples with 92% of the paired data sets for 2,4-D being within 25% variability. No triallate was detected in the filter samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Cessna
- Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB
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Waite DT, Gurprasad NP, Cessna AJ, Quiring DV. Atmospheric pentachlorophenol concentrations in relation to air temperature at five Canadian locations. Chemosphere 1998; 37:2251-2260. [PMID: 9828341 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(98)00287-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Pentachlorophenol (PCP), used as a wood preservative and as a disinfectant, has been found in human urine samples from Saskatchewan and in air samples from three Canadian sites. To confirm the presence of atmospheric PCP residues and to explore seasonality, weekly samples were collected at five Canadian sites for three consecutive weeks, in the months of July and October, 1995 and January, April and May, 1996, using a high volume sampler equipped with polyurethane foam (PUF) plugs. PCP was present in all samples collected adjacent to a utility pole storage site with concentrations ranging from 0.7 to 1233.0 ng m-3. There was a very strong correlation between average weekly air temperature, measured over a range of -29.3 to +20.0 degrees C, and the log10 of the average weekly concentration of PCP at this site. PCP was measured in 7 of 11 air samples from each of two small cities (concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 6.8 ng m-3) and the correlation between temperature and PCP concentration, for these two city sites, was similar to that for the utility pole storage site. Concentrations of PCP at two rural sites were lower (0.1-1.5 ng m-3) and detected less frequently. As a consequence, the correlation between air temperature and PCP concentration was more variable.
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Affiliation(s)
- D T Waite
- Environment Canada, Regina, SK, Canada
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Thompson TS, Treble RG, Waite DT, Cessna AJ. Identification of pentachloronitrobenzene in ambient air extracts. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1997; 58:939-944. [PMID: 9136658 DOI: 10.1007/s001289900425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- T S Thompson
- Saskatchewan Health, Provincial Laboratory, 3211 Albert Street, Regina, Saskatchewan, S4S 5W6, Canada
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Cessna AJ, Waite DT, Constable M. Concentrations of pentachlorophenol in atmospheric samples from three Canadian locations, 1994. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1997; 58:651-658. [PMID: 9060385 DOI: 10.1007/s001289900383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A J Cessna
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada
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