A metabolomics approach for the evaluation of Ficus benghalensis female in vivo reproductive effects relative to its metabolite fingerprint as determined via UPLC-MS and GC-MS

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ficus benghalensis, commonly known as Banyan Fig, is the national tree of India and its aerial roots are used traditionally to treat female reproductive disorders. However, despite this traditional use, no pharmacological evidence could be traced supporting this use. Additionally, no comprehensive metabolite profiling was reported for F. benghalensis aerial roots.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study attempts to justify biochemically the traditional use of F. benghalensis aerial roots in treatment of female reproductive disorders and in relation to its secondary metabolite profile.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Total ethanol extract (TEE) and subfractions [petroleum ether (PEF), chloroform (CHF), ethyl acetate (EAF) and n-butanol (BUF] were prepared from air-dried powdered aerial roots of F. benghalensis. Detailed in-vivo investigation of the hormonal activity and action mechanism of the total ethanol extract and subfractions was carried out through evaluation of estrogenic and gonadotropic activities. The estrogenic activity was evaluated on ovariectomized immature female rats through estimating uterine weight, vaginal cornification and serum estradiol level along with histological examination of uteri. The gonadotropic activity was measured by assay of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) like activities. Total follicular and corpora lutea counts in immature female rats were used to determine FSH and LH like activities, respectively in addition to histological picture of the genitalia. Comprehensive non-targeted metabolite profiling was carried out for the TEE and subfractions using UPLC-HRMS in negative and positive ionization modes. UPLC-MS fingerprint was subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares analyses to correlate the bioactivities to specific chemical constituents in F. benghalensis different subfractions. GC-MS was further used for non-polar silylated fractions.

RESULTS

Results revealed that only the non-polar PEF and CHF displayed moderate estrogenic and FSH-like activities but with no LH-like activity. Metabolites profiling via (UPLC-HRMS) and multivariate PCA analysis enabled identification and comparison of various chemical classes in F. benghalensis extract and fractions. The active non-polar fractions revealed nearly similar metabolites profile being composed of isoflavonoids, triterpenes, sterols, fatty acids and cyclic peptides. In contrast, polar fractions were more abundant in apocarotenoids, fatty acyl amides, hydroxybenzoates and hydroxycinnamates in addition to two lignans. PLS analysis revealed strong correlation between hydroxylated fatty acids and pyranoisoflavones with estrogenic and FSH-like activities. GC-MS analysis was further employed for non-polar fractions profiling revealing for their enrichment in fatty acids/esters, terpenes, organic acids and phenolics.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to rationalize the use of F. benghalensis aerial root traditionally in treatment of gynecological disorders, revealing that the petroleum ether and chloroform non-polar subfractions of F. benghalensis showed estrogenic and FSH-like activity with absence of LH-like activity. This biological activity could possibly be attributed to its metabolites profile of isoflavonoids, fatty acids, triterpenes, sterols and cyclic peptides identified via UPLC-MS and GC-MS techniques. Consequently, F. benghalensis aerial roots should be used with caution in traditional treatment of female infertility or other reproductive disorders.

Antimicrobial activity of spiculisporic acid isolated from endophytic fungus Aspergillus cejpii of Hedera helix against MRSA

The surge in multidrug-resistant pathogens worldwide has jeopardized the clinical efficiency of many current antibiotics. This problem steered many researchers in their quest to discover new effective antimicrobial agents from natural origins including plants or their residing endophytes. In this work, we aimed to identify the endophytic fungi derived from Hedera helix L. and investigate their potential antimicrobial activity. Bioguided fractionation approach was conducted to isolate the pure compounds from the most active fungal fraction. Out of a total of six different isolated endophytic fungal strains, only Aspergillus cejpii showed the highest activity against all tested microbial strains. The most active fraction was the dichloromethane/methanol fraction (DCM:MeOH), where it showed significant activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Serratia marcescens, Acinetobacter baumannii, Salmonella typhi, and three drug-resistant clinical isolate strains including Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA, H1), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PS 16), and Acinetobacter baumannii (ACT 322) using tetracyline and kanamycin as the control antibiotics. Bioguided fractionation of the active fraction led to the isolation of the γ-butenolide, spiculisporic acid. Structure elucidation was carried out using 1H and 13C-NMR spectroscopic analysis. The compound showed good antimicrobial activities with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 3.9 to 31.25 μg/mL against all tested strains. Gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) profiling was also carried out to identify the metabolites in the microbial crude extract. In conclusion, endophytic fungi, Aspergillus cejpii, isolated from Hedera helix L. roots showed promising antimicrobial activity which merits further in-depth investigations for potential utilization as a source of new antibiotics in the future. It can also be considered as a novel source for spiculisporic acid.

Optimization and characterization of antileukemic L-asparaginase produced by Fusarium solani endophyte

L-asparaginase is an antileukemic enzyme that hydrolyzes L-asparagine into L-aspartic acid and ammonia, causing cell starvation and apoptosis in susceptible leukemic cell populations. Currently, L-asparaginase obtained from bacterial sources is constrained by several issues, including lesser productivity, stability, selectivity, and higher toxicity. The goal of this study is to provide fungal L-asparaginase with in-vitro effectiveness towards different human carcinomas. L-asparaginase from endophytic Fusarium solani (Gene Bank accession number MW209717) isolated from the roots of the medicinal plant Hedera helix L. was characterized and optimized experimentally for maximum L-asparaginase production in addition to evaluating its subsequent cytotoxicity towards acute monocytic leukemia and human skin fibroblast cell lines. The enzyme production was maximized using potato dextrose media (15.44 IU/ml/hr) at the 5th and 6th days of fermentation with incubation temperature 30 °C, 3% asparagine, 150-180 rpm agitation rate and a 250 ml flask. Enzyme characterization studies revealed that the enzyme maintained its thermal stability with temperatures up to 60 °C. However, its optimal activity was achieved at 35 °C. On measuring the enzymatic activity at various temperatures and different pH, maximum enzyme activity was recorded at 40 °C and pH 8 using 0.1 M asparagine concentration. Results also revealed promising cytotoxic activity against acute monocytic leukemia with IC50 = 3.66 µg/ml and low cytotoxicity against tested normal human skin fibroblast cell line which suggested that it might have selective toxicity, and consequently it could be used as a less toxic alternative to the current formulations.

A Comprehensive Review of Natural Alternatives for Treatment of Alopecia with an Overview of Market Products

Alopecia or hair loss is a widespread issue that has significant effects on personal well-being for both genders nationally and internationally. In addition, alopecia causes extreme emotional stress and negatively impacts the psychological health and self-esteem of cancer patients suffering from chemotherapy-induced alopecia. Unfortunately, available synthetic medications are costly, invasive, or have extreme adverse effects. On the contrary, natural and herbal hair loss products are widely available in the local and international markets in variable pharmaceutical forms with different mechanisms of action, namely, androgen antagonists, nutritional supplements, vasodilators, and 5α-reductase inhibitors or dihydrotestosterone blockers. Thus, it is of great importance to encourage researchers to investigate these natural alternatives that can act as potent therapeutic agents having diverse mechanisms of action as well as limited side effects. Currently, natural remedies are considered a fast-rising pharmaceutical segment with demand from a wide range of consumers. In this study, we present a review of reported herbal remedies and herb combinations recommended for hair loss and their mode of action, along with an overview of available market products and formulations, their composition, and declared effects. In addition, a general outline of the different forms of alopecia, its causes, and recommended treatments are mentioned as well. This was all done with the aim of assisting further studies with developing standardized natural formulations for alopecia as many were found to lack standardization of their bioactive ingredients and efficiency confirmation.

A biochemometric approach for the assessment of Phyllanthus emblica female fertility effects as determined via UPLC-ESI-qTOF-MS and GC-MS

Phyllanthus emblica L. fruits have long been used in Ayurvedic medicine for their many health benefits. In this study, we present P. emblica fruit crude extract and fractions' effects on the female reproductive system by assessing its estrogenic and gonadotropic activities. Results revealed that the non-polar petroleum ether and chloroform fractions exhibited the strongest estrogenic and follicle-stimulating hormone-like [FSH] activity, while the n-butanol fraction exhibited a significant luteinizing hormone-like [LH] activity. The ethyl acetate fraction showed neither estrogenic nor gonadotropic activities and in contrast it may impair female fertility suggesting that different metabolite classes contribute to the plant's overall effect on female fertility. To pinpoint active agents in these fractions, UPLC/ESI-qTOF-MS- was employed for secondary metabolite profiling with 100 metabolites annotated including ellagitannins, gallic acid derivatives, terpeneoids, sterols, phthalates and fatty acids. Correlation between extracts/fraction bioassays and UPLC/MS data was attempted using orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) revealing that guaiane-type sesquiterpenes, phthalates, diterpenes and oxygenated fatty acids showed positive correlation with estrogenic and gonadotropic activities. In contrast, mucic acid gallates, gallic acid derivatives and ellagitannins correlated negatively. GC/MS analysis of the non-polar bioactive fractions viz. petroleum ether and chloroform was also attempted which revealed its enrichment in fatty acids/fatty acyl esters (34%) and phenolic compounds (19.6%). This study provides the first report on the estrogenic and gonadotropic activities of P. emblica fruits in relation to their metabolite fingerprint.

Anti-obesity effect of argel (Solenostemma argel) on obese rats fed a high fat diet

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Solenostemma argel (Argel) is a desert plant commonly used in Egyptian and Sudanese traditional medicine to suppress appetite, for treatment of diabetes, and as an antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory agent. Previously the anti-diabetic, hypolipidemic and lipase inhibitory activities of Argel were reported in animal studies and in-vitro assays. However, its specific mechanism of action as an anti-obesity agent has not been studied before.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Assessment of the possible anti-obesity effect of Solenostemma argel on diet-induced obesity and elucidation of its mechanism of action, as well as, standardization of the active plant extract.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ethanolic extract (EtOH-E) and its fractions (CH₂Cl₂-F: methylene chloride and BuOH-F: n-butanol) were prepared from the aerial parts of S. argel and studied at two dose levels; 200 and 400 mg kg^-1 in a model of high fat diet (HFD) fed rats. The animals (72 Male Wister rats) were assigned into 9 groups: group (i) fed with normal diet and groups (ii-iv) fed with high fat diet (HFD) for 16 weeks and treated with orlistat, EtOH-E, CH₂Cl₂-F and BuOH-F in the beginning of the 8th week. At the end of the experiment, blood samples were analysed for lipid and liver biomarkers, glucose and insulin levels, as well as, adipokines and inflammatory markers. Liver and adipose tissues were examined histopathologically and their homogenates were used to determine levels of oxidative stress markers and lipogenesis-related genes. Body weight was monitored weekly during the experiment.

RESULTS

Our data showed that consumption of S. argel significantly controlled weight gain, attenuated liver steatosis, improved the lipid profile, modulated adipokines activities, increased β-oxidation gene expression, as well as, decreased the expression of lipogenesis-related genes and ameliorated inflammatory and lipid peroxidation derangement. The ethanolic extract was also standardized using LC-MS analysis for its content of stemmoside C.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study revealed that S. argel is a promising Egyptian natural drug, rich in pregnane glycosides, and could be considered a new therapeutic candidate targeting obesity.

Metabolomics reveals biotic and abiotic elicitor effects on the soft coral Sarcophyton ehrenbergi terpenoid content

The effects of six biotic and abiotic elicitors, i.e. MeJA (methyl jasmonate), SA (salicylic acid), ZnCl₂, glutathione and β-glucan BG (fungal elicitor), and wounding, on the secondary metabolite accumulation in the soft coral Sarcophyton ehrenbergi were assessed. Upon elicitation, metabolites were extracted and analysed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS). Except for MeJA, no differences in photosynthetic efficiency were observed after treatments, suggesting the absence of a remarkable stress on primary production. Chemometric analyses of UPLC-MS data showed clear segregation of SA and ZnCl₂ elicited samples at 24 and 48 h post elicitation. Levels of acetylated diterpene and sterol viz., sarcophytonolide I and cholesteryl acetate, was increased in ZnCl₂ and SA groups, respectively, suggesting an activation of specific acetyl transferases. Post elicitation, sarcophytonolide I level increased 132 and 17-folds at 48 h in 0.1 mM SA and 1 mM ZnCl₂ groups, respectively. Interestingly, decrease in sarcophine, a major diterpene was observed only in response to ZnCl₂, whereas no change was observed in sesquiterpene content following treatments. To the best of our knowledge, this study provides the first documentation for elicitation effects on a soft corals secondary metabolome and suggests that SA could be applied to increase diterpenoid levels in corals.

Structure-Activity Relationships of Antimicrobial Gallic Acid Derivatives from Pomegranate and Acacia Fruit Extracts against Potato Bacterial Wilt Pathogen

Bacterial wilts of potato, tomato, pepper, and or eggplant caused by Ralstonia solanacearum are among the most serious plant diseases worldwide. In this study, the issue of developing bactericidal agents from natural sources against R. solanacearum derived from plant extracts was addressed. Extracts prepared from 25 plant species with antiseptic relevance in Egyptian folk medicine were screened for their antimicrobial properties against the potato pathogen R. solancearum by using the disc-zone inhibition assay and microtitre plate dilution method. Plants exhibiting notable antimicrobial activities against the tested pathogen include extracts from Acacia arabica and Punica granatum. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of A. arabica and P. granatum resulted in the isolation of bioactive compounds 3,5-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzoic acid and gallic acid, in addition to epicatechin. All isolates displayed significant antimicrobial activities against R. solanacearum (MIC values 0.5-9 mg/ml), with 3,5-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzoic acid being the most effective one with a MIC value of 0.47 mg/ml. We further performed a structure-activity relationship (SAR) study for the inhibition of R. solanacearum growth by ten natural, structurally related benzoic acids.

Developmental changes in leaf phenolics composition from three artichoke cvs. (Cynara scolymus) as determined via UHPLC-MS and chemometrics

The metabolomic differences in phenolics from leaves derived from 3 artichoke cultivars (Cynara scolymus): American Green Globe, French Hyrious and Egyptian Baladi, collected at different developmental stages, were assessed using UHPLC-MS coupled to chemometrics. Ontogenic changes were considered as leaves were collected at four different time intervals and positions (top and basal) during artichoke development. Unsupervised principal component analysis (PCA) and supervised orthogonal projection to latent structures-discriminant analysis (O2PLS-DA) were used for comparing and classification of samples harvested from different cultivars at different time points and positions. A clear separation among the three investigated cultivars was revealed, with the American Green Globe samples found most enriched in caffeic acid conjugates and flavonoids vs. other cultivars. Furthermore, these metabolites also showed a marked effect on the discrimination between leaf samples from cultivars harvested at different positions, regardless of the plant age. Metabolite absolute quantifications further confirmed that discrimination was mostly influenced by phenolic compounds, namely caffeoylquinic acids and flavonoids. This study demonstrates an effect of artichoke leaf position, regardless of plant age, on its secondary metabolites composition. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report for compositional differences among artichoke leaves, based on their positions, via a metabolomic approach and suggesting that top positioned artichoke leaves present a better source of caffeoylquinic acids, compared to basal ones.

A New Flavonoid C-Glycoside from Celtis australis L. and Celtis occidentalis L. Leaves and Potential Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities

A major development over the past two decades has been the realization that free radical induced lipid peroxidation and DNA damage are associated with major health problems, e.g. cancer and ageing. Plant-derived antioxidants are increasingly found beneficial in protecting against these diseases. Celtis australis L. and Celtis occidentalis L. are two plants that have a variety of uses in folk medicine but have not been evaluated before for their antioxidant and cytotoxic properties. Therefore, the extracts of both plants' leaves were investigated for these activities, as well as isolation of the bioactive compounds responsible for the activities. Molecular structures of the compounds were elucidated by UV, HRESIMS, 1D ((1)H and (13)C) and 2D ((1)H-(13)C HSQC and (1)H-(13)C HMBC) NMR analyses. The ethanolic and aqueous extracts, n-butanol fractions and the isolated major compound were tested for their antioxidant activity using DPPH radical scavenging assay, xanthine oxidase-induced generation of superoxide radical and lipid peroxidation assay by thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) method using rat tissue homogenates. Cytotoxic activities were studied using standard MTT assay. A novel flavonoid C-triglycoside, 4‴-α-rhamnopyranosyl-2″-O-β-d-galactopyranosylvitexin, was isolated from both plants' leaves, together with seven known flavonoids. The n-butanol fractions and the major compound 2″-O-β-galactopyranosylvitexin showed significant antioxidant activities, more pronounced than the tested standards BHT and dl-α-tocopherol in most tests. All extracts showed variable cytotoxic activities. This study provides strong evidence for the antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of the extracts of Celtis australis L. and Celtis occidentalis L. leaves, which were attributed to the polar n-butanol fractions and the major isolated flavonoid 2″-galactosylvitexin.

Two Novel Acylated Flavonol Glycosides from Platanus Orientalis L. Leaves

Two novel acylated flavonol glycosides were isolated from the n-butanol fraction of the ethanolic extract of Platanus orientalis L. leaves. They were identified as kaempferol-3-O-(2″’-p-E-coumaroylrhamnosyl)(1″’→6″)-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1′″→2″)-β-D-glucopyranoside]-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside, and quercetin-3-O-(2″’-p-E-coumaroylrhamnosyl)(1″’→6″)-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1″″→2″)-β-D-glucopyranoside]-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside. Their structures were established on the basis of detailed spectral analysis.

Phenolic Constituents ofPlatanus OrientalisL. Leaves

A new flavonoid glycoside, 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-3,6-dimethoxyflavone-3′- O-β-D-xylopyranoside (axillarin-3′- O-β-D-xylopyranoside), was isolated from the ethyl acetate fraction of the ethanolic extract of Platanus orientalis L. leaves, along with nine known flavonoid aglycones and glycosides, a phenolic acid and a phenolic acid derivative. Their structures were established on the basis of detailed spectral analysis. The total ethanolic, aqueous and ethyl acetate extracts of the leaves were tested for antihepatotoxic, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. The extracts were found to be effective in protection against CCl4liver injury by significantly lowering alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels. The extracts also significantly restored depleted levels of glutathione, indicating a strong antioxidant activity, while they showed variable cytotoxic activity.