Identification of a short, single site matriglycan that maintains neuromuscular function in the mouse

Matriglycan (-1,3-β-glucuronic acid-1,3-α-xylose-) is a polysaccharide that is synthesized on α-dystroglycan, where it functions as a high-affinity glycan receptor for extracellular proteins, such as laminin, perlecan and agrin, thus anchoring the plasma membrane to the extracellular matrix. This biological activity is closely associated with the size of matriglycan. Using high-resolution mass spectrometry and site-specific mutant mice, we show for the first time that matriglycan on the T317/T319 and T379 sites of α-dystroglycan are not identical. T379-linked matriglycan is shorter than the previously characterized T317/T319-linked matriglycan, although it maintains its laminin binding capacity. Transgenic mice with only the shorter T379-linked matriglycan exhibited mild embryonic lethality, but those that survived were healthy. The shorter T379-linked matriglycan exists in multiple tissues and maintains neuromuscular function in adult mice. In addition, the genetic transfer of α-dystroglycan carrying just the short matriglycan restored grip strength and protected skeletal muscle from eccentric contraction-induced damage in muscle-specific dystroglycan knock-out mice. Due to the effects that matriglycan imparts on the extracellular proteome and its ability to modulate cell-matrix interactions, our work suggests that differential regulation of matriglycan length in various tissues optimizes the extracellular environment for unique cell types.

Sarcospan-deficient mice maintain normal muscle function

Sarcospan is an integral membrane component of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC) found at the sarcolemma of striated and smooth muscle. The DGC plays important roles in muscle function and viability as evidenced by defects in components of the DGC, which cause muscular dystrophy. Sarcospan is unique among the components of the complex in that it contains four transmembrane domains with intracellular N- and C-terminal domains and is a member of the tetraspan superfamily of proteins. Sarcospan is tightly linked to the sarcoglycans, and together these proteins form a subcomplex within the DGC. Stable expression of sarcospan at the sarcolemma is dependent upon expression of the sarcoglycans. Here we describe the generation and analysis of mice carrying a null mutation in the Sspn gene. Surprisingly, the Sspn-deficient muscle maintains expression of other components of the DGC at the sarcolemma, and no gross histological abnormalities of muscle from the mice are observed. The Sspn-deficient muscle maintains sarcolemmal integrity as determined by serum creatine kinase and Evans blue uptake assays, and the Sspn-deficient muscle maintains normal force and power generation capabilities. These data suggest either that sarcospan is not required for normal DGC function or that the Sspn-deficient muscle is compensating for the absence of sarcospan, perhaps by utilizing another protein to carry out its function.

Biosynthesis of dystroglycan: processing of a precursor propeptide

Dystroglycan is a cytoskeleton-linked extracellular matrix receptor expressed in many cell types. Dystroglycan is composed of alpha- and beta-subunits which are encoded by a single mRNA. Using a heterologous mammalian expression system, we provide the first biochemical evidence of the alpha/beta-dystroglycan precursor propeptide prior to enzymatic cleavage. This 160 kDa dystroglycan propeptide is processed into alpha- and beta-dystroglycan (120 kDa and 43 kDa, respectively). We also demonstrate that the precursor propeptide is glycosylated and that blockade of asparagine-linked (N-linked) glycosylation did not prevent the cleavage of the dystroglycan precursor peptide. However, inhibition of N-linked glycosylation results in aberrant trafficking of the alpha- and beta-dystroglycan subunits to the plasma membrane. Thus, dystroglycan is synthesized as a precursor propeptide that is post-translationally cleaved and differentially glycosylated to yield alpha- and beta-dystroglycan.

epsilon-sarcoglycan replaces alpha-sarcoglycan in smooth muscle to form a unique dystrophin-glycoprotein complex

The sarcoglycan complex has been well characterized in striated muscle, and defects in its components are associated with muscular dystrophy and cardiomyopathy. Here, we have characterized the smooth muscle sarcoglycan complex. By examination of embryonic muscle lineages and biochemical fractionation studies, we demonstrated that epsilon-sarcoglycan is an integral component of the smooth muscle sarcoglycan complex along with beta- and delta-sarcoglycan. Analysis of genetically defined animal models for muscular dystrophy supported this conclusion. The delta-sarcoglycan-deficient cardiomyopathic hamster and mice deficient in both dystrophin and utrophin showed loss of the smooth muscle sarcoglycan complex, whereas the complex was unaffected in alpha-sarcoglycan null mice in agreement with the finding that alpha-sarcoglycan is not expressed in smooth muscle cells. In the cardiomyopathic hamster, the smooth muscle sarcoglycan complex, containing epsilon-sarcoglycan, was fully restored following intramuscular injection of recombinant delta-sarcoglycan adenovirus. Together, these results demonstrate a tissue-dependent variation in the sarcoglycan complex and show that epsilon-sarcoglycan replaces alpha-sarcoglycan as an integral component of the smooth muscle dystrophin-glycoprotein complex. Our results also suggest a molecular basis for possible differential smooth muscle dysfunction in sarcoglycan-deficient patients.

Membrane targeting and stabilization of sarcospan is mediated by the sarcoglycan subcomplex

The dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC) is a multisubunit complex that spans the muscle plasma membrane and forms a link between the F-actin cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix. The proteins of the DGC are structurally organized into distinct subcomplexes, and genetic mutations in many individual components are manifested as muscular dystrophy. We recently identified a unique tetraspan-like dystrophin-associated protein, which we have named sarcospan (SPN) for its multiple sarcolemma spanning domains (Crosbie, R.H., J. Heighway, D.P. Venzke, J.C. Lee, and K.P. Campbell. 1997. J. Biol. Chem. 272:31221-31224). To probe molecular associations of SPN within the DGC, we investigated SPN expression in normal muscle as a baseline for comparison to SPN's expression in animal models of muscular dystrophy. We show that, in addition to its sarcolemma localization, SPN is enriched at the myotendinous junction (MTJ) and neuromuscular junction (NMJ), where it is a component of both the dystrophin- and utrophin-glycoprotein complexes. We demonstrate that SPN is preferentially associated with the sarcoglycan (SG) subcomplex, and this interaction is critical for stable localization of SPN to the sarcolemma, NMJ, and MTJ. Our experiments indicate that assembly of the SG subcomplex is a prerequisite for targeting SPN to the sarcolemma. In addition, the SG- SPN subcomplex functions to stabilize alpha-dystroglycan to the muscle plasma membrane. Taken together, our data provide important information about assembly and function of the SG-SPN subcomplex.

Molecular pathogenesis of muscle degeneration in the delta-sarcoglycan-deficient hamster

The BIO14.6 hamster is an extensively used animal model of autosomal recessive cardiomyopathy and muscular dystrophy. Recently, a large deletion in the 5' end of the delta-sarcoglycan gene was found to be the primary genetic defect in the hamster. In the present investigation, we studied the effects of the delta-sarcoglycan deletion on transcription, expression, and function of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex in skeletal and cardiac muscle. We demonstrated that in striated muscle the genetic defect leads to the complete deficiency of delta-sarcoglycan and a concomitant loss of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-sarcoglycan. In addition, absence of the sarcoglycan complex reduced the expression of alpha-dystroglycan in striated muscle fibers. These findings indicated that the primary defect in the BIO14.6 hamster leads to the dissociation of the dystroglycan complex from the sarcoglycan complex and disrupted anchorage of alpha-dystroglycan to the cell surface. Using intravenous injection of Evans blue dye as an in vivo tracer assay, we demonstrated that perturbation of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex caused extensive fiber damage in skeletal and cardiac muscle of the BIO14.6 hamster. Based on our results, we propose that loss of delta-sarcoglycan results in the impairment of sarcolemmal integrity, finally leading to muscular dystrophy and cardiomyopathy.

Progressive muscular dystrophy in alpha-sarcoglycan-deficient mice

Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 2D (LGMD 2D) is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the alpha-sarcoglycan gene. To determine how alpha-sarcoglycan deficiency leads to muscle fiber degeneration, we generated and analyzed alpha-sarcoglycan- deficient mice. Sgca-null mice developed progressive muscular dystrophy and, in contrast to other animal models for muscular dystrophy, showed ongoing muscle necrosis with age, a hallmark of the human disease. Sgca-null mice also revealed loss of sarcolemmal integrity, elevated serum levels of muscle enzymes, increased muscle masses, and changes in the generation of absolute force. Molecular analysis of Sgca-null mice demonstrated that the absence of alpha-sarcoglycan resulted in the complete loss of the sarcoglycan complex, sarcospan, and a disruption of alpha-dystroglycan association with membranes. In contrast, no change in the expression of epsilon-sarcoglycan (alpha-sarcoglycan homologue) was observed. Recombinant alpha-sarcoglycan adenovirus injection into Sgca-deficient muscles restored the sarcoglycan complex and sarcospan to the membrane. We propose that the sarcoglycan-sarcospan complex is requisite for stable association of alpha-dystroglycan with the sarcolemma. The Sgca-deficient mice will be a valuable model for elucidating the pathogenesis of sarcoglycan deficient limb-girdle muscular dystrophies and for the development of therapeutic strategies for this disease.

Caveolin-3 is not an integral component of the dystrophin glycoprotein complex

The dystrophin-glycoprotein complex is a multi-subunit protein complex that spans the muscle plasma membrane (sarcolemma) and forms a link between the intracellular cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix. Caveolin-3, the muscle specific form of caveolin, is also a major structural and regulatory integral membrane protein found at the sarcolemma. Oligomers of caveolin-3 form the structural framework for small membrane pockets known as caveolae. We directly examined whether caveolin-3 is an integral component of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex by examining four common biochemical and cellular properties of proteins integrally bound to the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex. We found that caveolin-3 de-enriches with partial purification of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex although a small amount of caveolin-3 is present. Sucrose gradient fractionation and laminin affinity chromatography completely separate this residual caveolin-3 from the core components of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex. We also show that caveolin-3 expression at the sarcolemma is not reduced in patients with primary mutations in either dystrophin or the sarcoglycans. This data demonstrates that localization of caveolin-3 to the sarcolemma occurs independently of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex and that caveolin-3 is not an integral component of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex.

Functional rescue of the sarcoglycan complex in the BIO 14.6 hamster using delta-sarcoglycan gene transfer

Four types of limb-girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD) are known to be caused by mutations in distinct sarcoglycan genes. The BIO 14.6 hamster is a model for sarcoglycan-deficient LGMD with a deletion in the delta-sarcoglycan (delta-SG) gene. We investigated the function of the sarcoglycan complex and the feasibility of sarcoglycan gene transfer for LGMD using a recombinant delta-SG adenovirus in the BIO 14.6 hamster. We demonstrate extensive long-term expression of delta-sarcoglycan and rescue of the entire sarcoglycan complex, as well as restored stable association of alpha-dystroglycan with the sarcolemma. Importantly, muscle fibers expressing delta-sarcoglycan lack morphological markers of muscular dystrophy and exhibit restored plasma membrane integrity. In summary, the sarcoglycan complex is requisite for the maintenance of sarcolemmal integrity, and primary mutations in individual sarcoglycan components can be corrected in vivo.

Sarcospan, the 25-kDa transmembrane component of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex

The dystrophin-glycoprotein complex is a multisubunit protein complex that spans the sarcolemma and forms a link between the subsarcolemmal cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix. Primary mutations in the genes encoding the proteins of this complex are associated with several forms of muscular dystrophy. Here we report the cloning and characterization of sarcospan, a unique 25-kDa member of this complex. Topology algorithms predict that sarcospan contains four transmembrane spanning helices with both N- and C-terminal domains located intracellularly. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that sarcospan's arrangement in the membrane as well as its primary sequence are similar to that of the tetraspan superfamily of proteins. Sarcospan co-localizes and co-purifies with the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex, demonstrating that it is an integral component of the complex. We also show that sarcospan expression is dramatically reduced in muscle from patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. This suggests that localization of sarcospan to the membrane is dependent on proper dystrophin expression. The gene encoding sarcospan maps to human chromosome 12p11.2, which falls within the genetic locus for congenital fibrosis of the extraocular muscle, an autosomal dominant muscular dystrophy.

Characterization of delta-sarcoglycan, a novel component of the oligomeric sarcoglycan complex involved in limb-girdle muscular dystrophy

The sarcoglycan complex is known to be involved in limb-girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD) and is composed of at least three proteins: alpha-, beta-, and gamma-sarcoglycan. delta-Sarcoglycan has now been identified as a second 35-kDa sarcolemmal transmembrane glycoprotein that shares high homology with gamma-sarcoglycan and is expressed mainly in skeletal and cardiac muscle. Biochemical analysis has demonstrated that gamma- and delta-sarcoglycan are separate entities within the sarcoglycan complex and that all four sarcoglycans exist in the complex on a stoichiometrically equal basis. Immunohistochemical analysis of skeletal muscle biopsies from patients with LGMD2C, LGMD2D, and LGMD2E demonstrated a reduction of the entire sarcoglycan complex in these muscular dystrophies. Furthermore, we have mapped the human delta-sarcoglycan gene to chromosome 5q33-q34 in a region overlapping the recently linked autosomal recessive LGMD2F locus.

Beta subunit heterogeneity in N-type Ca2+ channels

The beta subunit of the voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel is a cytoplasmic protein that interacts directly with an alpha1 subunit, thereby modulating the biophysical properties of the channel. Herein, we demonstrate that the alpha1B subunit of the N-type Ca2+ channel associates with several different beta subunits. Polyclonal antibodies specific for three different beta subunits immunoprecipitated 125I-omega-conotoxin GVIA binding from solubilized rabbit brain membranes. Enrichment of the N-type Ca2+ channels with an alpha1B subunit-specific monoclonal antibody showed the association of beta1b, beta3, and beta4 subunits. Protein sequencing of tryptic peptides of the 57-kDa component of the purified N-type Ca2+ channel confirmed the presence of the beta3 and beta4 subunits. Each of the beta subunits bound to the alpha1B subunit interaction domain with similar high affinity. Thus, our data demonstrate important heterogeneity in the beta subunit composition of the N-type Ca2+ channels, which may be responsible for some of the diverse kinetic properties recorded from neurons.

The glycans of soybean peroxidase

Soybean hull peroxidase (SBP, E.C. 1.11.1.7), an anionic glycoprotein, was found to contain 18.2% carbohydrate with the average composition: 2 mol GlcNAc, 3.3 mol Man, 0.9 mol Fuc, and 0.7 mol Xyl. The oligosaccharides of SBP, after release with glycopeptidase A, were investigated by a combination of high pH anion exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection, methylation analysis and matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The structure of the major oligosaccharide, accounting for 60 to 65% of the total, is Man alpha 1-->6(Man beta 1-->3)(Xyl beta 1-->2)Man beta 1-->4GlcNAc beta 1-->4(Fuc alpha 1-->3)GlcNAc. A further 20 to 25% of the released oligosaccharides belong to the (Xyl)xManm(Fuc)fGlcNAc2 (m = 2, 4, 5, 6; f = 0 or 1, x = 0 or 1) family. The rest of the oligosaccharides were of the high-mannose type. Investigation of the six tryptic fractions containing carbohydrate revealed considerable heterogeneity in the N-linked oligosaccharides present in each fraction. The major glycan (4, Table III) was present in each fraction. Two of the fractions contained the major part of the high-mannose type glycans, ManmGlcNAc2 (m = 5-9), the major species being Man7GlcNAc2. The other four fractions contained mainly members of the (Xyl)xManm(Fuc)fGlcNAc2 (m = 2, 4, 5, 6; f = 0 or 1; x = 0 or 1) family. Methylation analysis of the holo- and apo-SBP provide support for the structures proposed for the oligosaccharides as well as for the heterogeneity of the glycopeptide fractions.