Biomarkers for Diabetic Nephropathy with a Focus on Kidney Injury Molecule-1 (KIM-1)

Diabetic Nephropathy (DN), with an increasing rate of mortality and morbidity, is considered the main cause of End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD). A wide spectrum of biomarkers exist for early detection of DN, but they suffer from low specificity and sensitivity, indicating the urgent demand for finding more effective biomarkers. Also, the pathophysiology of tubular damage and its relation to DN are not yet completely understood. Kidney Injury Molecule-1 (KIM-1) is a protein that is expressed at substantially low contents in the kidney under physiological conditions. A number of reports have demonstrated the close relationship between urine and tissue KIM-1 levels and kidney disorders. KIM-1 is known as a biomarker for diabetic nephropathy and renal injury. In this study, we aim to review the potential clinical and pathological roles of KIM-1 in diabetic nephropathy.

Vanillic Acid and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Focus on AMPK in Adipose and Liver Tissues

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), a growing health issue around the world, is defined as the presence of steatosis in the liver without any other detectable byproducts such as alcohol consumption which includes a wide spectrum of pathologies, such as steatohepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. A growing body of evidence indicates that the reduction in the 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity, which could be activated by the consumption of the drugs, hormones, cytokines, and dietary restriction, is related to some metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes, PCOS, and NAFLD. Vanillic acid (VA), as an anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-angiogenic and anti-metastatic factor, has protective effects on the liver as in two animal models of liver damage. It reduces serum levels of transaminases, inflammatory cytokines, and the accumulation of collagen in the liver and prevents liver fibrosis. Besides, it decreases body and adipose tissue weight in a mice model of obesity and, similar to the liver tissue, diminishes adipogenesis through the activation of AMPK. It has been reported that VA can target almost all of the metabolic abnormalities of NAFLD, such as hepatic steatosis, inflammation, and hepatic injury, at least partially through the activation of AMPK. Therefore, in this review, we will discuss the possible and hypothetical roles of VA in NAFLD, with a special focus on AMPK.