Chromosome Transplantation: Opportunities and Limitations

There are thousands of rare genetic diseases that could be treated with classical gene therapy strategies such as the addition of the defective gene via viral or non-viral delivery or by direct gene editing. However, several genetic defects are too complex for these approaches. These "genomic mutations" include aneuploidies, intra and inter chromosomal rearrangements, large deletions, or inversion and copy number variations. Chromosome transplantation (CT) refers to the precise substitution of an endogenous chromosome with an exogenous one. By the addition of an exogenous chromosome and the concomitant elimination of the endogenous one, every genetic defect, irrespective of its nature, could be resolved. In the current review, we analyze the state of the art of this technique and discuss its possible application to human pathology. CT might not be limited to the treatment of human diseases. By working on sex chromosomes, we showed that female cells can be obtained from male cells, since chromosome-transplanted cells can lose either sex chromosome, giving rise to 46,XY or 46,XX diploid cells, a modification that could be exploited to obtain female gametes from male cells. Moreover, CT could be used in veterinary biology, since entire chromosomes containing an advantageous locus could be transferred to animals of zootechnical interest without altering their specific genetic background and the need for long and complex interbreeding. CT could also be useful to rescue extinct species if only male cells were available. Finally, the generation of "synthetic" cells could be achieved by repeated CT into a recipient cell. CT is an additional tool for genetic modification of mammalian cells.

Phenolic acids, lignans, and low-molecular-weight phenolics exhibit the highest in vitro cellular bioavailability in different digested and faecal-fermented phenolics-rich plant extracts

Polyphenols are multifaceted bioactive compounds, but little is known about their real impact on human health after consumption. In this work, the phenolic profiling of quebracho, yellow maize, and violet rice extracts was comprehensively investigated, together with the impact of in vitro digestion and colonic fermentation on the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of these phytochemicals. The different matrices showed distinct profiles, potentially influencing in vitro starch digestion under cooking conditions. Furthermore, after the extracts underwent in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and faecal fermentation, phenolics exhibited a differential bioaccessibility trend at every digestion level, with matrix-dependent behaviour. The bioavailability results suggest that polyphenols are metabolised during colonic fermentation, mainly into tyrosols, phenolic acids, and lignans, which are partially absorbed by Caco-2 cells. By combining metabolomics with in vitro cellular methods, this research provides new insights into the fate of these phytochemicals in the gut, yielding comprehensive data on their consumption in food matrices.

siRNAs pools generated in Escherichia coli exhibit strong RNA-interference activity against influenza virus genomic sequences

Due to the recurrent pandemic outbreaks that occurred during the last century, Influenza A viruses are considered a serious potential danger to human health. Among the innate immune pathways in eukaryotes, RNA interference plays a significant role in the interaction between viruses and host cells. RNA interference is addressed by small dsRNA molecules produced by the host itself (miRNAs, i.e. "micro-RNAs") but can be triggered also by the administration of exogenous short RNAs (siRNAs, "short interfering RNAs"). In this work, artificial siRNA pools targeting NP and PB genomic regions of the Influenza virus were produced in engineered Escherichia coli, adapting a published protocol. In a MDCK cell in vitro model, these preparations were challenged against reporter vectors bearing viral genomic sequences. A strong and specific RNA interference activity was observed, and the details of this action were indagated.

Colorimetric Point-of-Care Detection of Clostridium tyrobutyricum Spores in Milk Samples

Clostridium tyrobutyricum represents the main spoiling agent responsible for late blowing defects (LBD) in hard and semi-hard cheeses. Its spores are resistant to manufacturing procedures and can germinate during the long ripening process, causing the burst of the cheese paste with a consequent undesirable taste. The lower quality of blown cheeses leads to considerable financial losses for the producers. The early identification of spore contaminations in raw milk samples thus assumes a pivotal role in industrial quality control. Herein, we developed a point of care (POC) testing method for the sensitive detection of C. tyrobutyricum in milk samples, combining fast DNA extraction (with no purification steps) with a robust colorimetric loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) technique. Our approach allows for the sensitive and specific detection of C. tyrobutyricum spores (limit of detection, LoD: ~2 spores/mL), with the advantage of a clear naked-eye visualization of the results and a potential semi-quantitative discrimination of the contamination level. In addition, we demonstrated the feasibility of this strategy using a portable battery-operated device that allowed both DNA extraction and amplification steps, proving its potential for on-site quality control applications without the requirement of sophisticated instrumentation and trained personnel.

Polyphenols and Sesquiterpene Lactones from Artichoke Heads: Modulation of Starch Digestion, Gut Bioaccessibility, and Bioavailability following In Vitro Digestion and Large Intestine Fermentation

Artichoke is a relevant source of health-promoting compounds such as polyphenols and sesquiterpene lactones. In this study, the bioaccessibility and gut bioavailability of artichoke constituents were evaluated by combining in vitro digestion and large intestine fermentation, metabolomics, and Caco-2 human intestinal cells model. Moreover, the ability of artichoke polyphenols to modulate the in vitro starch digestibility was also explored. An untargeted metabolomic approach based on liquid chromatography quadrupole-time-of-flight (UHPLC/QTOF) mass spectrometry coupled with multivariate statistics was used to comprehensively screen the phytochemical composition of raw, digested, and fermented artichoke. Overall, a large abundance of phenolic acids and sesquiterpene lactones was detected, being 13.77 and 11.99 mg·g-1, respectively. After 20 h of in vitro large intestine fermentation, a decrease in polyphenols and sesquiterpene lactones content was observed. The most abundant compounds characterizing the raw material (i.e., chlorogenic acid and cynaropicrin equivalents) showed an average % bioaccessibility of 1.6%. The highest % bioaccessibility values were recorded for flavonoids such as anthocyanin and flavone equivalents (on average, 13.6%). However, the relatively high bioavailability values recorded for flavonols, phenolic acids, and sesquiterpene lactones (from 71.6% up to 82.4%) demonstrated that these compounds are able to be transported through the Caco-2 monolayer. The phenolic compounds having the highest permeation rates through the Caco-2 model included low molecular weight phenolics such as tyrosol and 4-ethylcatechol; the isoflavonoids 3'-O-methylviolanone, equol 4'-O-glucuronide, and hydroxyisoflavone; together with the methyl and acetyl derivatives of glycosylated anthocyanins. Therefore, although human in vivo confirmatory trials are deemed possible, current findings provide insights into the mechanistic effects underlying artichoke polyphenols and sesquiterpenoids bioavailability following gastrointestinal and large intestine processes.

Fusion between cancer cells and macrophages occurs in a murine model of spontaneous neu+ breast cancer without increasing its metastatic potential

Cell fusion between neoplastic and normal cells has been suggested to play a role in the acquisition of a malignant phenotype. Several studies have pointed to the macrophage as the normal partner in this fusion, suggesting that the fused cells could acquire new invasive properties and become able to disseminate to distant organs. However, this conclusion is mainly based on studies with transplantable cell lines. We tested the occurrence of cell fusion in the MMTV-neu model of mouse mammary carcinoma. In the first approach, we generated aggregation chimeras between GFP/neu and RFP/neu embryos. Tumor cells would display both fluorescent proteins only if cell fusion with normal cells occurred. In addition, if cell fusion conferred a growth/dissemination advantage, cells with both markers should be detectable in lung metastases at increased frequency. We confirmed that fused cells are present at low but consistent levels in primary neoplasms and that the macrophage is the normal partner in the fusion events. Similar results were obtained using a second approach in which bone marrow from mice carrying the Cre transgene was transplanted into MMTV-neu/LoxP-tdTomato transgenic animals, in which the Tomato gene is activated only in the presence of CRE recombinase. However, no fused cells were detected in lung metastases in either model. We conclude that fusion between macrophages and tumor cells does not confer a selective advantage in our spontaneous model of breast cancer, although these data do not rule out a possible role in models in which an inflammation environment is prominent.

Cell fusion in the liver, revisited

There is wide agreement that cell fusion is a physiological process in cells in mammalian bone, muscle and placenta. In other organs, such as the cerebellum, cell fusion is controversial. The liver contains a considerable number of polyploid cells: They are commonly believed to originate by genome endoreplication, although the contribution of cell fusion to polyploidization has not been excluded. Here, we address the topic of cell fusion in the liver from a historical point of view. We discuss experimental evidence clearly supporting the hypothesis that cell fusion occurs in the liver, specifically when bone marrow cells were injected into mice and shown to rescue genetic hepatic degenerative defects. Those experiments-carried out in the latter half of the last century-were initially interpreted to show “transdifferentiation”, but are now believed to demonstrate fusion between donor macrophages and host hepatocytes, raising the possibility that physiologically polyploid cells, such as hepatocytes, could originate, at least partially, through homotypic cell fusion. In support of the homotypic cell fusion hypothesis, we present new data generated using a chimera-based model, a much simpler model than those previously used. Cell fusion as a road to polyploidization in the liver has not been extensively investigated, and its contribution to a variety of conditions, such as viral infections, carcinogenesis and aging, remains unclear.

Expression of a single siRNA against a conserved region of NP gene strongly inhibits in vitro replication of different Influenza A virus strains of avian and swine origin

Influenza A virus is the principal agent responsible of the respiratory tract's infections in humans. Every year, highly pathogenic and infectious strains with new antigenic assets appear, making ineffective vaccines so far developed. The discovery of RNA interference (RNAi) opened the way to the progress of new promising drugs against Influenza A virus and also to the introduction of disease resistance traits in genetically modified animals. In this paper, we show that Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cell line expressing short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) cassette, designed on a specific conserved region of the nucleoprotein (NP) viral genome, can strongly inhibit the viral replication of four viral strains sharing the target sequence, reducing the viral mRNA respectively to 2.5×10(-4), 7.5×10(-5), 1.7×10(-3), 1.9×10(-4) compared to the control, as assessed by real-time PCR. Moreover, we demonstrate that during the challenge with a viral strain bearing a single mismatch on the target sequence, although a weaker inhibition is observed, viral mRNA is still lowered down to 1.2×10(-3) folds in the shRNA-expressing clone compared to the control, indicating a broad potential use of this approach. In addition, we developed a highly predictive and fast screening test of siRNA sequences based on dual-luciferase assay, useful for the in vitro prediction of the potential effect of viral inhibition. In conclusion, these findings reveal new siRNA sequences able to inhibit Influenza A virus replication and provide a basis for the development of siRNAs as prophylaxis and therapy for influenza infection both in humans and animals.

41 UPDATING THE ZONA-FREE METHOD FOR MOUSE CLONING USING HM1 EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS

The zona-free method of SCNT designed for bovine and pig cloning (Booth et al. 2001; Vajta et al. 2001; Oback et al. 2003) was successfully used for horse (Galli et al. 2003). Although simple and efficient in farm animals, its application in the mouse met several problems (Ribas et al. 2005, 2006). The aim of our work was to produce cloned mice using HM1 embryonic stem (ES)cells adapting a zona-free method. Seven- to 24-week-old superovulated B6D2F1 female mice were used as oocytes donors. Cumulus cells were removed by 0.3% hyaluronidase and the zona pellucida by 0.5% pronase in KSOM-HEPES (KSOM-H) 1 h later (Ribas et al. 2006) or immediately after hyaluronidase treatment at 37°C. The HM1 ES cells were cultured in KnockOut DMEM supplemented with leukemia inhibitory factor and 15% fetal bovine serum with or without 2i (Ying et al. 2008) and were synchronized at M phase by 3 ng mL–1 nocodazole for 3 h before fusion. Only spherical cells were selected for NT. Metaphase II chromosome spindle complexes were removed by micromanipulation in KSOM-H medium with 5 μg mL–1 cytochalasin B. Lectin-treated enucleated oocytes were attached to the donor cells in KSOM-H with nocodazole and fused by 2 pulses of 1.3 kV cm–1 DC for 30 μs in 0.3 M mannitol medium. Following 10- to 15-min incubation in KSOM-H, the fusion was assessed and repeated if the constructs were nonfused. Cloned embryos were activated in 1 mM SrCl2 in Ca2+-free KSOM medium for 2 to 2.5 or 5 to 6 h and cultured in 20-μL KSOM droplets using the well-of-the-well (WOW) method (Vajta et al. 2000) under mineral oil at 37°C and 5% CO2. Day 4 compacted morulae and blastocysts were surgically transferred into the uterus of Day-2.5 pseudopregnant recipients that were sacrificed on Day 19.5 to examine fetal development. The donor mice age was important for oocyte survival: ~16% of oocytes of 7- to 10-week-old mice lysed before or during fusion in 33% of experiments (n experiments = 15), whereas oocytes of older mice were not sensitive to enzymatic treatment and electric impulses even after 3 fusion rounds (n = 19). The time of pronase treatment did not affect oocyte survival, whereas extending the time between hyaluronidase treatment and enucleation revealed self-activation in ~25% of oocytes. The fusion efficiency of ES cells was significantly lower compared with serum-starved fibroblasts (61%, n = 623 v. 100%, n = 80). The duration of SrCl2 treatment did not affect embryo development (cleavage: 82% v. 84%; Day 4 blastocysts: 49% v. 52%). ES cell culture with 2i increased Day 4 blastocyst development (60.7% v. 50.4%; P = 0.07), and their ability to implant (52.6% v. 38.2%; P = 0.06). Moreover, only NT embryos derived from 2i-ES cells developed to term (8.2%, n = 5; P = 0.08), and produced live fetuses (4.9%, n = 3). In light of these results, the fusion of ES cells remains the critical step in the mouse zona-free protocol.Partially supported by grant Superpig from Regione Lombardia.

Gut response induced by weaning in piglet features marked changes in immune and inflammatory response

At weaning, piglets are exposed to many stressors, such as separation from the sow, mixing with other litters, end of lactational immunity, and a change in their environment and gut microbiota. The sudden change of feeding regime after weaning causes morphological and histological changes in the small intestine which are critical for the immature digestive system. Sixteen female piglets were studied to assess the effect of sorbic acid supplementation on the small intestine tissue transcriptome. At weaning day (T0, piglet age 28 days), four piglets were sacrificed and ileal tissue samples collected. The remaining 12 piglets were weighed and randomly assigned to different postweaning (T5, piglet age 33 days) diets. Diet A (n = 6) contained 5 g/kg of sorbic acid. In diet B (n = 6), the organic acids were replaced by barley flour. Total RNA was isolated and then hybridized to CombiMatrix CustomArray™ 90-K platform microarrays, screening about 30 K genes. Even though diet had no detectable effect on the transcriptome during the first 5 days after weaning, results highlighted some of the response mechanisms to the stress of weaning occurring in the piglet gut. A total of 205 differentially expressed genes were used for functional analysis using the bioinformatics tools BLAST2GO, Ingenuity Pathway Analysis 8.0, and Dynamic Impact Approach (DIA). Bioinformatic analysis revealed that apoptosis, RIG-I-like, and NOD-like receptor signaling were altered as a result of weaning. Interferons and caspases gene families were the most activated after weaning in response to piglets to multiple stressors. Results suggest that immune and inflammatory responses were activated and likely are a cause of small intestine atrophy as revealed by a decrease in villus height and villus/crypt ratio.

215 LIVE PIGLETS GENERATED BY SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER FOLLOWING TARGETING OF A PORCINE ENHANCED GREEN FLUORESCENT PROTEIN LINE MEDIATED BY ZINC-FINGER NUCLEASES TO ESTABLISH CLONED HYGROMYCIN-RESISTANT PRIMARY CELL LINES SUITABLE FOR Cre-MEDIATED RECOMBINASE-MEDIATED CASSETTE EXCHANGE

Recently, site-specific nucleases (zinc-finger nucleases, ZFN; TAL effector nucleases; and CRISPR) emerged as powerful tools for gene modification of different cells types and enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-specific ZFN were successfully used in the rat (Geurtz et al. 2010) and in the pig (Watanabe et al. 2010; Whyte et al. 2010). Previously (Brunetti et al. 2008 Clon. Stem Cells), we generated an EGFP transgenic porcine line (Verro2GFP) characterised by a single integration of pCAGGS-EGFP cassette, high ubiquitous EGFP expression, Mendelian transgene transmission, and expression in F1. The aim of this work was to modify a transcriptionally active GFP-locus into one suitable for Cre-mediated recombinase-mediated cassette exchange (RMCE), using EGFP-specific ZFN. Homology arms for promoter-less targeting vector were derived from pCAGGS-EGFP vector (promoter fragment = left-homology-arm = LHA; polyA sequence = right-homology-arm = RHA). Cloning floxed (lox2272/lox5171) hygromycin resistance coding sequence between LHA and RHA sequences, we generated the targeting/RMCE vector (pB5′3′Hygro-PL) and its positive control (C+) for PCR set-up (100–1000 plasmid copies). Verro2GFP fibroblasts cultured in DMEM+M199(1 : 1) + 10% FCS, bFGF in 5% CO2, 5% O2, were transfected using Nucleofector (V-024 program). In ZFN-mediated gene targeting, 2 μg of each ZFN coding vector (Sigma-CompoZr®) and 2 μg of pB5′3′Hygro-PL/KpnI vector were used to “nucleofect” 1.4 × 106 Verro2GFP fibroblasts in 2 experiments. Transfected cells were plated in 20 Petri dishes (Ø = 150 mm) and cultured under hygromycin selection (200 μg mL–1) for 15 days. After 12 days of drug selection, 82 resistant colonies were picked up and expanded in 24 multiwell plates for SCNT. All colonies were PCR screened and 45 (54.9%) colonies were positive. Four colonies were used in zona-free SCNT experiments with 140 Day 6 compacted morulae/blastocysts transferred into 2 synchronized sows that both became pregnant. One pregnancy went to term and delivered 5 live animals and 5 stillborn with correct hygromycin cassette integration, detected by PCR. The PCR products were sequenced in 7 animals to verify integration of promoterless targeting vector and in all 7 sequenced samples we obtained a correct insertion without any substitution/deletion. Using hygromycin selection in these experiments, we demonstrated that ZFN-mediated gene targeting can be easily done with high efficiency and is compatible with living animals. Moreover, we have validated a feasible SCNT-tested platform for further Cre-mediated site-specific gene modifications. This work is supported by a grant (Superpig) co-financed by Lombardy Region through the Fund for Promoting Institutional Agreements.

Modeling amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in hSOD1 transgenic swine

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that occurs in two clinically indistinguishable forms: sporadic (SALS) and familial (FALS), the latter linked to several gene mutations, mostly inheritable in a dominant manner. Nearly 20% of FALS forms are linked to mutations in the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene. Research on ALS relies on transgenic models and particularly on mice carrying a glycine-to-alanine conversion at the 93rd codon (G93A) of the hSOD1 gene. Although G93A transgenic mice have been widely employed in clinical trials and basic research, doubts have been recently raised from numerous reliable sources about their suitability to faithfully reproduce human disease. Besides, the scientific community has already foreseen swine as an attractive and alternative model to nonhuman primates for modeling human diseases due to closer anatomical, physiological and biochemical features of swine rather than rodents to humans. On this basis, we have produced the first swine ALS model by in vitro transfection of cultured somatic cells combined with somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). To achieve this goal we developed a SOD1(G93A) (superoxide dismutase 1 mutated in Gly93-Ala) vector, capable of promoting a high and stable transgene expression in primary porcine adult male fibroblasts (PAF). After transfection, clonal selection and transgene expression level assessment, selected SOD1(G93A) PAF colonies were used as nuclei donors in SCNT procedures. SOD1(G93A) embryos were transferred in recipient sows, and pregnancies developed to term. A total of 5 piglets survived artificial hand raising and weaning and developed normally, reaching adulthood. Preliminary analysis revealed transgene integration and hSOD1(G93A) expression in swine tissues and 360° phenotypical characterization is ongoing. We believe that our SOD1(G93A) swine would provide an essential bridge between the fundamental work done in rodent models and the reality of treating ALS.

Somatic cell nuclear transfer and transgenesis in large animals: current and future insights

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) was first developed in livestock for the purpose of accelerating the widespread use of superior genotypes. Although many problems still exist now after fifteen years of research owing to the limited understanding of genome reprogramming, SCNT has provided a powerful tool to make copies of selected individuals in different species, to study genome pluripotency and differentiation, opening new avenues of research in regenerative medicine and representing the main route for making transgenic livestock. Besides well-established methods to deliver transgenes, recent development in enzymatic engineering to edit the genome provides more precise and reproducible tools to target-specific genomic loci especially for producing knockout animals. The interest in generating transgenic livestock lies in the agricultural and biomedical areas and it is, in most cases, at the stage of research and development, with few exceptions that are making the way into practical applications.

234 EFFICIENT EXPRESSION OF HUMAN ENDOTHELIAL PROTEIN C RECEPTOR AND HUMAN THROMBOMODULIN IN TRANSFECTED PIG PRIMARY hCD55+-GAL–/– FIBROBLASTS USING F2A EXPRESSION VECTOR

The genetic engineering of the pig genome for xenotransplantation studies requires the insertion of different transgenes to create multi-transgenic pigs. In order to simultaneously add more transgene in a single genetic insertion, we constructed a polycistronic vector using the F2A self-cleaving peptide. Moreover, this solution has the added advantages of preventing possible segregation during breeding of the animals and of guaranteeing an equimolar production of chosen transgenes. The scope of this work was the construction and validation of an ubiquitous F2A-bicistronic expression vector for human thrombomodulin (hTM) and human endothelial protein C receptor (hEPCR) genes in pig primary hCD55-GAL–/– cells to establish transgenic fibroblasts colonies, to be used for somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) to generate pigs for xenotransplantation research. The expression vector consisted of pCAGGS promoter (CMV-IE+chicken β actin) followed by hEPCR-furinF2A-hTM coding sequence. The resulting expression cassette was inserted between 2 insulators obtained from the 5′ MAR region of chicken lysozyme. Outside of this insulated structure, there is a loxable puromycin selection cassette. The resulting purified and linearized expression vector (pEFTM/Lgu I = 5 μg) was transfected into hCD55-GAL–/– primary fibroblasts (1 × 106), using Nucleofector (Amaxa, Lonza, Cologne, Germany), in parallel for comparative purposes we cotransfected the 2 pCAGGS-monocistronic vectors for the same transgenes (hEPCR and hTM = 1:3, 5 μg). Transfected cells were selected with puromycin (1 μg mL–1) for 15 days. After 8 days of selection, resistant colonies were picked up and expanded into 24-well plates for cryopreservation and analyses. Bicistronic transfection produced 20 clones and cotransfection only 8 clones that were analysed by Western blot (WB) and by immunocytochemistry (ICC) using polyclonal antibody anti-EPCR (1:250, R&D) and monoclonal antibody ab6980-Abcam (1:5000, Abcam, Cambridge, UK) in WB; polyclonal antibody RCR252 (1:100, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and monoclonal antibody ab6980-Abcam (1:100, Abcam) for ICC. Seventeen bicistronic clones (85%) and 2 cotransfected monocistronic clones (25%) were positive for both transgenes using WB. After ICC analyses, only 11 bicistronic colonies (55%) and 1 cotransfected colony (12.5%) uniformly expressed the desired transgenes and were selected for SCNT. The pCAGGS promoter maintained its strong expression also using the hEPCR-FurinF2A-hTM coding sequence and this bicistronic solution permitted us to improve our results obtained with co-transfection. Availability of hEPCR+ hTM+ hCD55+-GAL–/– colonies will allow us to obtain a new transgenic background for future xenotransplantation projects. This study was supported by EU grant no. LSHB-CT-2006-037377 (Xenome) and by Regione Lombardia (Superpig project).

Comparison of expression vectors in Lactobacillus reuteri strains

The synthesis of heterologous proteins in lactobacilli is strongly influenced by the promoter selected for the expression. In addition, the activity of the promoters themselves may vary among different bacterial hosts. Three different promoters were investigated for their capability to drive enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) expression in Lactococcus lactis spp. cremoris MG1363, in Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 20016(T) and in five L. reuteri strains isolated from chicken crops. The promoters of the Lactobacillus acidophilus surface layer protein gene (slp), L. acidophilus lactate dehydrogenase gene (ldhL) and enterococcal rRNA adenine N-6-methyltransferase gene (ermB) were fused to the coding sequence of EGFP and inserted into the backbone of the pTRKH3 shuttle vector (pTRKH3-slpGFP, pTRKH3-ldhGFP, pTRKH3-ermGFP). Besides conventional analytical methods, a new quick fluorimetric approach was set up to quantify the EGFP fluorescence in transformed clones using the Qubit() fluorometer. ermB proved to be the most effective promoter in L. reuteri isolates, producing 3.90 x 10(-7) g of fluorescent EGFP (mL OD(stationary culture))(-1). Under the same conditions, the ldhL promoter produced 2.66 x 10(-7) g of fluorescent EGFP (mL OD(stationary culture))(-1). Even though the slp promoter was efficient in L. lactis spp. cremoris MG1363, it was nearly inactive both in L. reuteri DSM 20016(T) and in L. reuteri isolates.

431 GENERATION OF CLONED CD55-CD39 TRANSGENIC α1,3-GALACTOSYLTRANSFERASE DEPLETED (GAL - / - ) PIGLETS

Success in xenotransplantation relies on engineering of the pig genome to express human transgenes, such as CD55/CD39, that can control coagulation and inflammation to prolong the graft survival of a 1,3-galactosyltransferase depleted (Gal-/-) pig organs in nonhuman primates and then able to bypass the hyperacute rejection. The aim of our work was to produce Gal-/- piglets overexpressing CD55/CD39. In experiment (Exp.) 1 exploiting 2 ubiquitous expression vectors (pCAGGS-CD55 and pCAGGS-CD39), we transfected immortalized porcine kidney cells (PK15) with CD55 and CD39 using Nucleofector (Amaxa Biosystems, Cologne, Germany) and selected 5 cell colonies each (PK15-CD55 and PK15-CD39) that were expanded and analyzed by RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry (IHC) and Western blot (WB). The monoclonal antibodies IA10 for hCD55 and BU61 for hCD39 were used. Transgenic transcription was confirmed by Northern blot (NB) using digoxigenin-labeled probes. In Exp. 2, a neonatal pig Gal-/- fibroblast line was co-transfected by Nucleofector using 2 ubiquitous expression vectors (hEF-CD55 and pCAGGS-CD39) for the expression of CD55 and CD39. Colonies were analyzed by RT-PCR and IHC only, because of the limited number of cells available. Cells from one colony with a high level of CD55/CD39 expression according to IHC were used for nuclear transfer into enucleated oocytes. Day 5 compact morula/blastocyst (n = 144) were transplanted in 2 synchronized sows. Porcine aortic endothelial cells (PAEC) and fibroblasts derived from 2 stillborn piglets were analysed with IHC, NB, and WB. The expression level of transgenes from both experiments was compared with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), using IA10, BRIC110, IH4, 2G2, and MEM-118 antibodies for hCD55 and TU66 for hCD39. In Exp. 1, RT-PCR showed CD55 mRNA expression in 3 out of 5 (2, 15, 24) PK15-CD55 colonies. A high level of CD55 expression was confirmed only in colony 24 by IHC, NB, WB, and FACS. Low expression level in colony 2 revealed by FACS was not detected by IHC, indicating that FACS analysis is more accurate to quantify the level of expression. All PK15-CD39 colonies were positive according to RT-PCR and IHC. Only one colony PK15-CD39 was further analyzed by NB and WB and confirmed positive. In Exp. 2, IHC, NB, WB, and FACS analyses of fibroblasts and PAEC derived from both cloned piglets confirmed the high level of CD39 expression detected by IHC in donor cells used for nuclear transfer. However, strong CD55 expression detected by IHC was not confirmed by NB analyses and, by FACS, was lower than in HUVEC cells. In conclusion, we produced cloned CD55-CD39 transgenic Gal-/- piglets with a high level of CD39 expression but the expression level of CD55 was lower than in HUVEC cells. We found that although IHC is the method of choice in preliminary screening, it is not sufficiently quantitative when only a few cells for each clone are available. Thus, IHC needs to be complemented with additional methods (e.g. WB, FACS, real-time RT-PCR) to obtain complete evaluation of the expression pattern of transgenes before nuclear transfer experiments. This study was supported by EU grant no. LSHB-CT-2006-037377 and Fondazione Banca Popolare di Cremona.

Cancer mortality in Europe, 2000-2004, and an overview of trends since 1975

BACKGROUND

To update the pattern of cancer mortality in Europe.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We analysed cancer mortality in 34 European countries during 2000-2004, with an overview of trends in 1975-2004 using data from the World Health Organization.

RESULTS

From 1990-1994 to 2000-2004, overall cancer mortality in the European Union declined from 185.2 to 168.0/100 000 (world standard, -9%) in men and from 104.8 to 96.9 (-8%) in women, with larger falls in middle age. Total cancer mortality trends were favourable, though to a variable degree, in all major European countries, including Russia, but not in Romania. The major determinants of these favourable trends were the decline of lung (-16%) and other tobacco-related cancers in men, together with the persistent falls in gastric cancer, and the recent appreciable falls in colorectal cancer. In women, relevant contributions came from the persistent decline in cervical cancer and the recent falls in breast cancer mortality, particularly in northern and western Europe. Favourable trends were also observed for testicular cancer, Hodgkin lymphomas, leukaemias, and other neoplasms amenable to treatment, though the reductions were still appreciably smaller in eastern Europe.

CONCLUSION

This updated analysis of cancer mortality in Europe showed a persistent favourable trend over the last years.

Fetal liver cells transplanted in utero rescue the osteopetrotic phenotype in the oc/oc mouse

Autosomal recessive osteopetrosis (ARO) is a group of genetic disorders that involve defects that preclude the normal function of osteoclasts, which differentiate from hematopoietic precursors. In half of human cases, ARO is the result of mutations in the TCIRG1 gene, which codes for a subunit of the vacuolar proton pump that plays a fundamental role in the acidification of the cell-bone interface. Functional mutations of this pump severely impair the resorption of bone mineral. Although postnatal hematopoietic stem cell transplantation can partially rescue the hematological phenotype of ARO, other stigmata of the disease, such as secondary neurological and growth defects, are not reversed. For this reason, ARO is a paradigm for genetic diseases that would benefit from effective prenatal treatment. Using the oc/oc mutant mouse, a murine model whose osteopetrotic phenotype closely recapitulates human TCIRG1-dependent ARO, we report that in utero transplantation of adult bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells can correct the ARO phenotype in a limited number of mice. Here we report that in utero injection of allogeneic fetal liver cells, which include hematopoietic stem cells, into oc/oc mouse fetuses at 13.5 days post coitum produces a high level of engraftment, and the oc/oc phenotype is completely rescued in a high percentage of these mice. Therefore, oc/oc pathology appears to be particularly sensitive to this form of early treatment of the ARO genetic disorder.

Cancer mortality in the European Union, 1970-2003, with a joinpoint analysis

BACKGROUND

Cancer mortality peaked in the European Union (EU) in the late 1980s and declined thereafter.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We analyzed EU cancer mortality data provided by the World Health Organization in 1970-2003, using join point analysis.

RESULTS

Overall, cancer mortality levelled off in men since 1988 and declined in 1993-2003 (annual percent change, APC = -1.3%). In women, a steady decline has been observed since the early 1970s. The decline in male cancer mortality has been driven by lung cancer, which levelled off since the late 1980s and declined thereafter (APC = 2.7% in 1997-2003). Recent decreases were also observed for other tobacco-related cancers, as oral cavity/pharynx, esophagus, larynx and bladder, as well as for colorectal (APC = -0.9% in 1992-2003) and prostate cancers (APC = -1.0% in 1994-2003). In women, breast cancer mortality levelled off since the early 1990s and declined thereafter (APC = -1.0% in 1998-2003). Female mortality declined through the period 1970-2003 for colorectal and uterine cancer, while it increased over the last three decades for lung cancer (APC = 4.6% in 2001-2003). In both sexes, mortality declined in 1970-2003 for stomach cancer and for a few cancers amenable to treatment.

CONCLUSION

This update analysis of the mortality from cancer in the EU shows favorable patterns over recent years in both sexes.

308 INFLUENCE OFA MATRIX ATTACHMENT REGION ON THE EXPRESSION OF BICISTRONIC VECTORS TRANSFECTED IN MAMMALIAN CELLS CULTURED IN VITRO

We investigated the effect of the 52 MAR (matrix attachment region) sequence of chicken lysozyme gene as a possible insulator for the expression of our transgenes in somatic cells to be used for nuclear transfer. With the preliminary purpose to demonstrate a possible positive effect (position or copy number) on the long-term combined expression during in vitro culture, we have created a bicistronic ubiquitous expression vector with (MAR+) or without (MAR–) MAR. The main structure of our constructs is composed of the pCAGGS promoter driving the expression of a reporter gene (enhanced green fluorescent protein, EGFP) followed by a loxable selection cassette (loxP-PGKneo). The MAR region was inserted before the selection cassette. After KpnI digestion, the resulting linearized vectors were purified and subsequently used to transfect adult porcine fibroblast cell lines using the Nucleofector system (Amaxa, Cologne, Germany). Fibroblasts were cultured in DMEM/M199 medium (1:1) + 10% FCS supplemented with 5 ng mL–1 of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF). In every experiment, 1 � 106 cells were transfected with 2.5 µg of linearized plasmid and selected for 3 weeks with medium supplemented with 400 µg mL–1 of Geneticin (G418 sulfate, Calbiochem, La Jolla, CA). On Day 8 of G418 selection, we analyzed 150 colonies for each treatment, using fluorescence microscopy with fluorescein isothiocyanate filters. Colonies were classified according to size (large) and cell morphology (small cells without signs of aging). In addition, colonies were classified for uniform GFP expression (uniform), patchy GFP expression (variegated), and no GFP expression (negative). Resistant colonies derived from MAR+ and MAR– vectors, respectively, had 36 (24%), 42 (28%), and 56 (37%) v. 79 (53%), 58 (39%), and 29 (19%) uniform, variegated, and negative GFP. Differences were significant for variegated and negative in MAR+ v. MAR– (chi square, P < 0.05). Thirty-six MAR+ and 42 MAR– colonies uniformly expressing GFP were transferred to 24-well plates and subjected to G418 selection until Day 22, when 7 MAR+ and 15 MAR– clones were still growing in culture. Four of seven MAR+ (57%) and 7/15 MAR– (47%) uniformly expressed high levels of GFP. In conclusion, we found that significantly fewer colonies expressed GFP with the MAR+ vector; however, within the GFP-expressing clones, expression was more uniform. Therefore, we did not find a beneficial effect of MAR sequences on expression in somatic cells during in vitro culture; however, further work is needed to investigate their effect after nuclear transfer and/or on the next generation of cloned transgenic animals.

Continuing declines in cancer mortality in the European Union

BACKGROUND

From 1988 to 1997 age-standardised total cancer mortality rates in the European Union (EU) fell by around 9% in both sexes. Available cancer mortality data in Europe up to 2002 allow a first check of the forecast of further declines in cancer mortality.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We considered trends in age-standardised mortality from major cancer sites in the EU during the period 1980-2002.

RESULTS

For men, total cancer mortality, after a peak of 191.1/100,000 in 1987 declined to 177.8 in 1997 (-7%), and to 166.5 in 2002. Corresponding figures for females were 107.9/100,000, 100.5 and 95.2, corresponding to falls of 7% from 1987 to 1997, and to 5% from 1997 to 2002. Over the last 5 years, lung cancer declined by 1.9% per year in men, to reach 44.4/100,000, but increased by 1.7% in women, to reach 11.4. In 2002, for the first year, lung cancer mortality in women was higher than that for intestinal cancer (11.1/100,000), and lung cancer became the second site of cancer deaths in women after breast (17.9/100,000). From 1997 to 2002, appreciable declines were observed in mortality from intestinal cancer in men (-1.6% per year, to reach 18.8/100,000), and in women (-2.5%), as well as for breast (-1.7% per year) and prostate cancer (-1.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the persisting rises in female lung cancer, the recent trends in cancer mortality in the EU are encouraging and indicate that an 11% reduction in total cancer mortality from 2000 to 2015 is realistic and possible.

Tissue-specific sensitivity to AID expression in transgenic mouse models

Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID), an enzyme with homology to members of the APOBEC family, is involved in somatic hypermutation (SHM) of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes, either by direct deamination of DNA or by an indirect action through its putative RNA editing activity. AID is able to mutate both Ig-like reporter constructs and selected non-Ig genes in normal B cells and in other cells when ectopically overexpressed in mammalian cells and transgenic mice. However, in spite of the fact that in these transgenic animals AID activity was driven by an ubiquitous promoter, only T lymphomas and lung adenomas occurred. In the present work, we constructed three sets of transgenic mice in which AID was under the control of lck, HTLV-I and MMTV promoters, respectively. The lck/AID mice developed thymic lymphomas with variable but high efficiency, while no tumor was detected in HTLV-I/AID mice after two years of monitoring. Four MMTV/AID founder mice died with an atypical clinical picture, although no mammary tumor was found. These findings suggest that additional factors, present in thymocytes but not in other tissues or in lymphoid cells at different stages of differentiation, are needed for AID to fully manifest its tumorigenic potential in mouse. Alternatively, the display of full AID mutagenic and transforming activity could be related to the existence of physiologic DSBs which occur in both thymocytes and switching B cells.

Mutations in OSTM1 (grey lethal) define a particularly severe form of autosomal recessive osteopetrosis with neural involvement

We report three novel osteopetrosis patients with OSTM1 mutations and review two that have been previously described. Our analysis suggests that OSTM1 defines a new subset of patients with severe central nervous system involvement. This defect is also present in the gl mouse, which could represent a good model to study the role of the gene in the pathogenesis of this disease.

INTRODUCTION

Autosomal recessive osteopetrosis (ARO) is a severe hereditary bone disease whose cellular basis is in the osteoclast, but with heterogeneous molecular defects. In addition to the TCIRG1 and the ClCN7 genes, whose mutations account for approximately 55% and 10% of cases, respectively, the OSTM1 gene has been described thus far in only two ARO patients. materials and methods: We report here three novel ARO patients presenting with severe primary central nervous system involvement in addition to the classical stigmata of severe bone sclerosis, growth failure, anemia, thrombocytopenia, and visual impairment with optic atrophy. In addition we analyzed the brain morphology and histology of the grey lethal mutant mouse.

RESULTS

The analysis of the OSTM1 gene in two patients, both from Kuwait, showed homozygous two nucleotide deletion in exon 2, leading to a frameshift and premature termination. The third (Lebanese) patient showed a single point mutation in exon 1, leading to a nonsense mutation. The clinical neurological evaluation of the two Kuwaiti patients by CT and MRI scans showed a defect in the white matter, with a specific diagnosis of severe cerebral atrophy. The gl brain showed a diffuse translucent appearance with loss of the normal demarcation between the white and the grey matter, features consistent with myelin loss or hypomyelination. Histological and myelin staining analysis evidenced an atrophy of the corpus callosum with loss of myelin fibers, and in cortical areas, loss of the normal lamination consistent with multiple foci of cortical dysplasia.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that OSTM1-dependent ARO defines a new subset of patients with severe central nervous system involvement leading to a very poor prognosis. The fact that central nervous system involvement is also present in the gl mouse mutant suggests that this mouse is a good model to test possible therapies.

Lung cancer mortality in European women: recent trends and perspectives

BACKGROUND

Lung cancer mortality in men has been declining since the late 1980s in most European countries. In women, although rates are still appreciably lower than those for men, steady upward trends have been observed in most countries. To quantify the current and future lung cancer epidemic in European women, trends in lung cancer mortality in women over the last four decades were analyzed, with specific focus on the young.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Age-standardized (world standard) lung cancer mortality rates per 100,000 women-at all ages, and truncated 35--64 and 20--44 years-were derived from the WHO for the European Union (EU) as a whole and for 33 separate European countries. Joinpoint regression analysis was used to identify points where a significant change in trends occurred.

RESULTS

In the EU overall, female lung cancer mortality rates rose by 23.8% between 1980--1981 and 1990--1991 (from 7.8 to 9.6/100,000), and by 16.1% thereafter, to reach the value of 11.2/100,000 in 2000--2001. Increases were smaller in the last decade in several countries. Only in England and Wales, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia and Ukraine did female lung cancer mortality show a decrease over the last decade. In several European countries, a decline in lung cancer mortality in young women (20--44 years) was observed over the last decade.

CONCLUSIONS

Although female lung cancer mortality is still increasing in most European countries, the more favorable trends in young women over recent calendar years suggest that if effective interventions to control tobacco smoking in women are implemented, the lung cancer epidemic in European women will not reach the levels observed in the USA.

Resveratrol and breast cancer risk

Resveratrol is a non-flavonoid polyphenol that has attracted attention as a potential anticancer agent in vitro and in vivo, but scanty epidemiological data are available. We have therefore analysed the relation between dietary intake of resveratrol and breast cancer risk using data from a case-control study conducted between 1993 and 2003 in the Swiss Canton of Vaud on 369 cases and 602 controls. Compared with the lowest tertile of total resveratrol intake, the multivariate odds ratios (OR) were 0.50 for the intermediate and 0.39 for the highest tertile, and the trend in risk was significant. A significant inverse association was observed for resveratrol from grapes (OR = 0.64 and 0.55), but not for wine. The inverse relation between resveratrol and breast cancer risk was not explained by several potential confounding factors, including detailed allowance for alcohol intake, nor attributable to a non-specific favourable effect of fruit on breast cancer risk.

Trends in cancer mortality in the European Union and accession countries, 1980-2000

Cancer mortality rates and trends over the period 1980-2000 for accession countries to the European Union (EU) in May 2004, which include a total of 75 million inhabitants, were abstracted from the World Health Organization (WHO) database, together with, for comparative purposes, those of the current EU. Total cancer mortality for men was 166/100,000 in the EU, but ranged between 195 (Lithuania) and 269/100,000 (Hungary) in central and eastern European accession countries. This excess related to most cancer sites, including lung and other tobacco-related neoplasms, but also stomach, intestines and liver, and a few neoplasms amenable to treatment, such as testis, Hodgkin's disease and leukaemias. Overall cancer mortality for women was 95/100,000 in the EU, and ranged between 100 and 110/100,000 in several central and eastern European countries, and up to 120/100,000 in the Czech Republic and 138/100,000 in Hungary. The latter two countries had a substantial excess in female mortality for lung cancer, but also for several other sites. Furthermore, for stomach and especially (cervix) uteri, female rates were substantially higher in central and eastern European accession countries. Over the last two decades, trends in mortality were systematically less favourable in accession countries than in the EU. Most of the unfavourable patterns and trends in cancer mortality in accession countries are due to recognised, and hence potentially avoidable, causes of cancer, including tobacco, alcohol, dietary habits, pollution and hepatitis B, plus inadequate screening, diagnosis and treatment. Consequently, the application of available knowledge on cancer prevention, diagnosis and treatment may substantially reduce the disadvantage now registered in the cancer mortality of central and eastern European accession countries.

Declining mortality from kidney cancer in Europe

Mortality rates from kidney cancer increased throughout Europe up until the late 1980s or early 1990s. Trends in western European countries, the European Union (EU) and selected central and eastern European countries have been updated using official death certification data for kidney cancer abstracted from the World Health Organisation (WHO) database over the period 1980-1999. In EU men, death rates increased from 3.92 per 100,000 (age standardised, world standard) in 1980-81 to 4.63 in 1994-95, and levelled off at 4.15 thereafter. In women, corresponding values were 1.86 in 1980-81, 2.04 in 1994-95 and 1.80 in 1998-99. Thus, the fall in kidney cancer mortality over the last 5 years was over 10% for both sexes in the EU. The largest falls were in countries with highest mortality in the early 1990s, such as Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands. Kidney cancer rates levelled off, but remained very high, in the Czech Republic, Baltic countries, Hungary, Poland and other central European countries. Thus, in the late 1990s, a greater than three-fold difference in kidney cancer mortality was observed between the highest rates in the Czech Republic, the Baltic Republics and Hungary, and the lowest ones in Romania, Portugal and Greece. Tobacco smoking is the best recognised risk factor for kidney cancer, and the recent trends in men, mainly in western Europe, can be related to a reduced prevalence of smoking among men. Tobacco, however, cannot account for the recent trends registered in women.

Processed meat and the risk of selected digestive tract and laryngeal neoplasms in Switzerland

BACKGROUND

Processed meat has been related to the risk of digestive tract neoplasms but the evidence remains inconclusive. We examined data from a network of case-control studies conducted between 1992 and 2002 in the Swiss Canton of Vaud.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We studied 316 patients with incident, histologically confirmed oral and pharyngeal cancer, 138 patients with oesophageal cancer, 91 patients with laryngeal cancer and 323 patients with colorectal cancer. Controls were 1271 subjects admitted to the same hospital for a wide spectrum of acute non-neoplastic conditions, unrelated to long-term modification of diet.

RESULTS

There were strong direct trends in risk between consumption of processed meat and the various neoplasms considered: the multivariate odds ratios for the highest quartile of intake compared to the lowest were 4.7 for oral and pharyngeal cancer, 4.5 for oesophageal cancer, 3.4 for laryngeal cancer and 2.5 for colorectal cancer. The association was stronger in younger subjects, in moderate drinkers and in non-smokers.

CONCLUSION

Processed meat represents a strong indicator of unfavourable diet for digestive tract and laryngeal cancer risk in this population.

Monitoring falls in gastric cancer mortality in Europe

We have considered trends in age-standardized mortality from gastric cancer in 25 individual European countries, as well as in the European Union (EU) as a whole, in six selected central-eastern European countries and in the Russian Federation over the period 1950-1999. Steady and persisting falls in rates were observed, and the fall between 1980 and 1999 was approximately 50% in the EU, 45% in eastern Europe and 40% in Russia. However, the declines were greater in Russia and eastern Europe, since rates were much higher, in absolute terms. Joinpoint regression analysis indicated that the falls were proportionally greater in the last decade for men (-3.83% per year in the EU) and in the last 25 years for women (-3.67% per year in the EU) than in previous calendar years. Moreover, steady declines in gastric cancer mortality were observed in the middle-aged and the young population as well, suggesting that they are likely to persist in the near future. In terms of number of deaths avoided, however, the impact of the decline in gastric cancer mortality will be smaller, particularly in the EU.

Trends in cancer mortality at age 15 to 24 years in Europe

Trends in death certification rates from all cancers and seven selected cancer sites (bone sarcoma, soft-tissue sarcoma, ovary, testis, non-Hodgkin's lymphomas, Hodgkin's disease, leukaemias) were analysed for the population aged 15-24 years in Europe and, for comparative purposes, in the United States of America (USA) and Japan over the period of 1965-1998. Overall, there was a decrease in total cancer mortality of approximately 40% for both sexes. The declined mortality is largely attributable to better treatments and inclusion in multicentre clinical trials. The degree of improvement was similar in Japan and the USA, but was less in Eastern European countries, reflecting delays in the application of effective treatments, and limited involvement in large, well-designed clinical trials for these curable cancers in Eastern Europe.

Trends in mortality from suicide, 1965-99

OBJECTIVE

To analyse trends in mortality from suicide over the period 1965-99.

METHOD

Data were derived from the WHO database, including data for 47 countries.

RESULTS

In the European Union (EU), all age suicide mortality peaked at 16.1/100,000 in men in 1980-84, and declined thereafter to 14.4/100,000 in 1995-98. In females, the fall was 29% to reach 4.6/100,000. A similar pattern of trends was observed in several eastern European countries. In contrast, mortality from suicide rose substantially in the Russian Federation, from 37.7/100,000 in males in 1985-89 to 58.3/100,000 in 1995-98 (+55%), and to 9.5/100,000 (+12%) in females. In the USA and most other American countries providing data, no consistent pattern was evident for males, but falls were observed in females. Steady declines were registered for Japan, starting from the highest suicide rates worldwide in the late 1950s. Suicide rates were upwards in Ireland, Italy, Spain, the UK, Cuba, Australia and New Zealand. Substantial rises were observed in a few countries (Ireland, Cuba, Mexico, Australia and New Zealand) for young males.

CONCLUSION

In spite of mixed trends, suicide remains a significant public health problem worldwide.

The recent decline in gallbladder cancer mortality in Europe

Mortality from gallbladder cancer has been traditionally high in Eastern Europe, and lower in northern countries. Trends in 18 European countries, including the European Union (EU) and selected Eastern European countries, have been updated using official death certification data abstracted from the WHO database over the period 1980-1999. In the EU, age-standardized rates declined by about 30% between the late 1980s and 1999 to reach 1.8/100 000 for women, and by about 10% to reach 1.4/100 000 for men. In the Czech Republic and Hungary, rates for women were over 6/100 000 until the early 1990s, and declined by about 25% thereafter. For males, gallbladder cancer mortality showed no consistent trend, with rates over 3/100 000. Thus, a high mortality area from gallbladder cancer is still evident for both sexes in Central and Eastern Europe. The trends in mortality from gallbladder cancer are probably influenced by changes in risk factor exposure, such as diet, nutrition or tobacco, but essentially reflect more widespread and earlier adoption of cholecystectomy in the EU, since gallstones are the major risk factor for gallbladder cancer. The data also indicate the scope for further improvement of the management of gallbladder disease in Eastern Europe.

Mortality from major cancer sites in the European Union, 1955-1998

After long-term rises, over the last decade age-standardised mortality from most common cancer sites has fallen in the European Union (EU). For males, the fall was 11% for lung and intestines, 12% for bladder, 6% for oral cavity and pharynx, and 5% for oesophagus. For females, the fall was 7% for breast and 21% for intestines. There were also persisting declines in stomach cancer (30% in both sexes), uterus (mainly cervix, -26%) and leukaemias (-10%). Mortality rates for other common neoplasms, including pancreas for both sexes, prostate and ovary, tended to stabilise. The only unfavourable trends were observed for female lung cancer (+15%). Lung cancer rates in women from the EU are approximately one-third of those in the USA, and 50% lower than breast cancer rates in the EU. Lung cancer rates in European women have also tended to stabilise below the age of 75 years. Thus, effective interventions on tobacco control could, in principle, avoid a major lung cancer epidemic in European women.

Oral contraceptives and colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Only limited information and understanding are available on the potential relation between oral contraceptive use and the risk of colorectal cancer. Further data on the issue are therefore useful and may help informed choice of contraception.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Data were derived from a case-control study of colorectal cancer conducted between 1992 and 2001 in the Swiss Canton of Vaud, including 131 women with colorectal cancer and 373 controls admitted in the same hospital as the cases with diagnosis of acute, non-neoplastic disease, unrelated to long-term modification of diet. Oral contraceptive use was reported by 11% of cases versus 17% of controls, corresponding to multivariate odds ratio of 0.8 (95% CI: 0.4-1.7). The odds ratio was non-significantly below unity across strata of duration, time since first and last oral contraceptive use.

CONCLUSION

These findings add further evidence on a possible inverse relation between oral contraceptive and colorectal cancer risk.

Lung cancer mortality in European regions (1955-1997)

BACKGROUND

The different spread of tobacco smoking across European countries has caused a substantial variability in lung cancer mortality. The objective of this investigation was to analyse the trends in lung cancer mortality rates in three broad European regions (Northern and Western countries, Eastern countries, and Mediterranean countries) during the second half of the 20th century.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Mortality data were obtained from the World Health Organisation database. Lung cancer mortality rates were age-standardised by the direct method to the world standard population. Trends from 1955 to 1997 were assessed by means of joinpoint regression analysis.

RESULTS

In men, rates in Eastern Europe increased to reach in the 1990s the highest values ever registered, while downward trends were observed in Northern and Western Europe since 1979, and in Mediterranean countries since the 1990s. In women, upward trends were observed in the three regions considered for the whole period.

CONCLUSIONS

Different smoking prevalences over time explain the shift of almost one decade in the trends in Mediterranean men as compared with Northern and other Western European men. The persisting upward trends in women in the three regions are of concern.

Trends in mortality from cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in Europe and other areas of the world

OBJECTIVE

To analyse trends in mortality from coronary heart disease (CHD) and cerebrovascular disease (CVD) over the period 1965 to 1998 in the European Union, other European countries, the USA, and Japan.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Data were derived from the World Health Organization database. In the European Union, CHD mortality in men rose from 146/100 000 in 1965-9 to 163/100 000 in 1975-9 and declined thereafter to 99/100 000 in 1995-8 (-39%). In women, the fall was from 70 to 45/100 000 (-36%). A > 55% decline in CVD was registered in both sexes. In eastern Europe, mortality from both CHD and CVD rose up to the early 1990s but has declined over the past few years in Poland and the Czech Republic. In the Russian Federation during 1995-8, mortality rates from CHD reached 330/100 000 men and 154/100 000 women and mortality rates from CVD were 203/100 000 men and 150/100 000 women-that is, they were among the highest rates worldwide. In the USA and Japan, long term trends were favourable for both CHD and CVD.

CONCLUSIONS

Trends in mortality from CHD and CVD were favourable in several developed areas of the world, but there were major geographical differences. In a few eastern European countries, mortality from CHD and CVD remains exceedingly high.

Trends in mortality from Hodgkin's disease in western and eastern Europe

Hodgkin's disease mortality rates steadily declined by about 75% between the late 1960's and the late 1990's in the current European Union countries and the USA, and Japan. Eastern European countries, however, showed only an approximately 40% decline between the late 1960's and the early 1990's, and no further fall thereafter.

Macronutrients and colorectal cancer: a Swiss case-control study

BACKGROUND

A role of energy and various nutrients, including protein, sugar, saturated and unsaturated fats, in colorectal cancer risk has been suggested, but should be better defined.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The association between dietary intake of various macronutrients and colorectal cancer risk was analysed using data from a case-control study conducted between 1992 and 2000 in the Swiss Canton of Vaud. The study comprised 286 case subjects (174 males, 112 females; median age 65 years) with incident, histologically confirmed colon (n = 149) or rectal (n = 137) cancer, and 550 control subjects (269 males, 281 females; median age 59 years) admitted to the same University Hospital for a wide spectrum of acute non-neoplastic conditions. Dietary habits were investigated using a validated food frequency questionnaire, including questions on 79 foods or recipes and on individual fat intake pattern. Multivariate odds ratios (OR) were obtained after allowance for age, sex, education, physical activity and energy intake.

RESULTS

The risk of colon and rectal cancer increased with total energy intake (OR in highest and lowest tertile, 2.0 and 2.2, respectively). There was no significant relation with starches or proteins, a significant inverse relation with sugars (OR for the highest tertile, 0.5), a direct trend in risk of borderline significance for saturated fats (OR = 1.4 for the highest tertile), and significant inverse trends for monounsaturated (OR = 0.6) and polyunsaturated fats (OR = 0.6).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings confirm that energy intake is directly related to colorectal cancer risk, and that different types of fat may have different roles in colorectal carcinogenesis.

Dietary fibre and the risk of colorectal cancer

The relationship between various types of fibre and colorectal cancer risk was investigated using data from a case-control study conducted in the Swiss Canton of Vaud between January 1992 and December 2000. The study included 286 cases of incident, histologically-confirmed colorectal cancers (149 colon and 137 rectal cancers) admitted to the University Hospital of Lausanne, and 550 controls whose admission diagnosis was of acute, non-neoplastic diseases. Dietary habits were investigated using a validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Odds ratios (ORs) were computed after allowance for age, sex, education, physical activity and energy intake. Fibre was analysed both as a continuous variable and in tertiles. There was a significant inverse relationship of total fibre intake (determined by the Englyst method as non-starch polysaccharides) and of its components with the risk of colorectal cancer. ORs for a difference in intake of one standard deviation from the mean fibre intake of the control distribution was 0.57 for total fibres, 0.55 for soluble non-cellulose polysaccharides (NCPs), 0.58 for total insoluble fibres, 0.57 for cellulose, 0.62 for insoluble NCP and 0.62 for lignin. When fibre was classified according to its source, the OR was 0.60 for vegetables, 0.78 for fruit and 0.74 for grain fibre. The ORs were similar for colon and rectal cancer and consistent across the strata of the major covariates and of several types of fibres.