Detection of chromosomal alteration after infusion of gene-edited allogeneic CAR T cells

A chromosome 14 inversion was found in a patient who developed bone marrow aplasia following treatment with allogeneic chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) Tcells containing gene edits made with transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN). TALEN editing sites were not involved at either breakpoint. Recombination signal sequences (RSSs) were found suggesting recombination-activating gene (RAG)-mediated activity. The inversion represented a dominant clone detected in the context of decreasing absolute CAR Tcell and overall lymphocyte counts. The inversion was not associated with clinical consequences and wasnot detected in the drug product administered to this patient or in any drug product used in this or other trials using the same manufacturing processes. Neither was the inversion detected in this patient at earlier time points or in any other patient enrolled in this or other trials treated with this or other product lots. This case illustrates that spontaneous, possibly RAG-mediated, recombination events unrelated to gene editing can occur in adoptive cell therapy studies, emphasizes the need for ruling out off-target gene editing sites, and illustrates that other processes, such as spontaneous V(D)J recombination, can lead to chromosomal alterations in infused cells independent of gene editing.

RPC4046, a Monoclonal Antibody Against IL13, Reduces Histologic and Endoscopic Activity in Patients With Eosinophilic Esophagitis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic, esophageal, type 2 inflammatory response associated with increased serum levels of interleukin 13 (IL13), which might contribute to its pathogenesis. RPC4046, a recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody against IL13, prevents its binding to the receptor subunits IL13RA1 and IL13RA2. We performed a phase 2 trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of RPC4046 in patients with EoE.

METHODS

We performed a multicenter, double-blind trial of 99 adults with active EoE randomly assigned (1:1:1) to groups given RPC4046 (180 or 360 mg) or placebo once weekly for 16 weeks, from September 2014 through December 2015. Patients were seen at day 1 (baseline) and weeks 2, 4, 8, 12, and 16. They underwent esophagogastroduodenoscopy and biopsies were collected at baseline and week 16. Patients completed a daily dysphagia symptom diary through week 16 and patient-reported outcome data were collected. The primary outcome was change in mean esophageal eosinophil count in the 5 high-power fields (hpfs) with the highest level of inflammation.

RESULTS

At week 16, mean changes in esophageal eosinophil count per hpf were a reduction of 94.8 ± 67.3 in patients who received 180 mg RPC4046 (P < .0001) and a reduction of 99.9 ± 79.5 in patients who received 360 mg RPC4046 (P < .0001) compared with a reduction of 4.4 ± 59.9 in patients who received placebo. The 360-mg RPC4046 group, compared with the placebo group, showed significant reductions in validated endoscopic severity score at all esophageal locations (P < .0001), validated histologic grade and stage scores (both P < .0001), and clinician's global assessment of disease severity (P = .0352); they had a numerical reduction in scores from the dysphagia symptom diary (P = .0733). Significant reductions in esophageal eosinophil counts and histologic and endoscopic features were observed in patients with steroid-refractory EoE who received RPC4046. The most common adverse events were headache and upper respiratory tract infection.

CONCLUSIONS

In a phase 2 trial of patients with EoE, we found RPC4046 (a monoclonal antibody against IL13) to reduce histologic and endoscopic features compared with placebo. RPC4046 was well tolerated. ClinicalTrials.gov no: NCT02098473.

Ozanimod (RPC1063), a selective S1PR1 and S1PR5 modulator, reduces chronic inflammation and alleviates kidney pathology in murine systemic lupus erythematosus

Ozanimod (RPC1063) is a specific and potent small molecule modulator of the sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1P_R1) and receptor 5 (S1P_R5), which has shown therapeutic benefit in clinical trials of relapsing multiple sclerosis and ulcerative colitis. Ozanimod and its active metabolite, RP-101075, exhibit a similar specificity profile at the S1P receptor family in vitro and pharmacodynamic profile in vivo. The NZBWF1 mouse model was used in therapeutic dosing mode to assess the potential benefit of ozanimod and RP-101075 in an established animal model of systemic lupus erythematosus. Compared with vehicle-treated animals, ozanimod and RP-101075 reduced proteinuria over the duration of the study and serum blood urea nitrogen at termination. Additionally, ozanimod and RP-101075 reduced kidney disease in a dose-dependent manner, as measured by histological assessment of mesangial expansion, endo- and exo-capillary proliferation, interstitial infiltrates and fibrosis, glomerular deposits, and tubular atrophy. Further exploration into gene expression changes in the kidney demonstrate that RP-101075 also significantly reduced expression of fibrotic and immune-related genes in the kidneys. Of note, RP-101075 lowered the number of plasmacytoid dendritic cells, a major source of interferon alpha in lupus patients, and reduced all B and T cell subsets in the spleen. Given the efficacy demonstrated by ozanimod and its metabolite RP-101075 in the NZBWF1 preclinical animal model, ozanimod may warrant clinical evaluation as a potential treatment for systemic lupus erythematosus.

Semi-Automated Sample Preparation for Plasma Proteomics

The discovery of new biomarkers will be an essential step to enhance our ability to better diagnose and treat human disease. The proteomics research community has recently increased its use of human blood (plasma/serum) as a sample source for these discoveries. However, while blood is fairly non-invasive and readily available as a specimen, it is not easily analyzed by liquid chromatography (LC)/mass spectrometry (MS), because of its complexity. Therefore, sample preparation is a crucial step prior to the analysis of blood. This sample preparation must also be standardized in order to gain the most information from these valuable samples and to ensure reproducibility. We have designed a semi-automated and highly parallel procedure for the preparation of human plasma samples. Our process takes the samples through eight successive steps before analysis by LC/MS: (1) receipt, (2) reformatting, (3) filtration, (4) depletion, (5) concentration determination and normalization, (6) digestion, (7) extraction, and (8) randomization, triplication, and lyophilization. These steps utilize a number of different liquid handlers and liquid chromatography (LC) systems. This process enhances our ability to discover new biomarkers from human plasma.

Evaluation of CETP activity in vivo under non-steady-state conditions: influence of anacetrapib on HDL-TG flux

Studies in lipoprotein kinetics almost exclusively rely on steady-state approaches to modeling. Herein, we have used a non-steady-state experimental design to examine the role of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) in mediating HDL-TG flux in vivo in rhesus macaques, and therefore, we developed an alternative strategy to model the data. Two isotopomers ([(2)H11] and [(13)C18]) of oleic acid were administered (orally and intravenously, respectively) to serve as precursors for labeling TGs in apoB-containing lipoproteins. The flux of a specific TG (52:2) from these donor lipoproteins to HDL was used as the measure of CETP activity; calculations are also presented to estimate total HDL-TG flux. Based on our data, we estimate that the peak total postprandial TG flux to HDL via CETP is ∼ 13 mg · h(-1) · kg(-1) and show that this transfer was inhibited by 97% following anacetrapib treatment. Collectively, these data demonstrate that HDL TG flux can be used as a measure of CETP activity in vivo. The fact that the donor lipoproteins can be labeled in situ using well-established stable isotope tracer techniques suggests ways to measure this activity for native lipoproteins in free-living subjects under any physiological conditions.

Target class strategies in mass spectrometry-based proteomics

The cornerstone of proteomics resides in using traditional methods of protein chemistry, to extract and resolve complex mixtures, in concert with the powerful engines of mass spectrometry to decipher peptide and protein identities. The broad utility of proteomics technologies to map protein interactions, understand regulatory mechanisms and identify biomarkers associated with disease states and drug treatments necessitates a targeted biochemical approach tailored to the characteristics of the tissue, fluid or cellular extract being studied. The application of affinity methods in proteomic studies to focus on particular classes of molecules is being used with increasing frequency and comprises the subject of this review. An overview of successfully applied affinity methods is provided, along with speculation on the use of innovative approaches. Sample preparation and processing are critical for proteomics with affinity reagents, as only functional and active proteins can be isolated in most cases. Considerations for methods of sample preparation to optimize affinity capture and release are also discussed.

Quantification of circulating D-dimer by peptide immunoaffinity enrichment and tandem mass spectrometry

D-dimer is a product of the coagulation cascade and is associated with venous thromboembolism, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and additional clinical conditions. Despite its importance, D-dimer measurement has limited clinical utility due in part to the lack of reliable assays. The difficulty in developing an immunoassay that is specific for D-dimer arises from the inherent heterogeneity in its structure. In this report, we describe a highly specific method for the quantification of D-dimer level in human plasma. In our method, the reciprocally cross-linked peptide resulting from factor XIIIa-catalyzed dimerization of fibrin γ chains was selected to represent the D-dimer antigen. Using an antipeptide antibody, we enriched the cross-linked peptide from trypsin-digested plasma prior to quantitative analysis with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The assay has a quantitative range of 500 pmol/L to 100 nmol/L in human plasma. In further characterization of the assay, we found that it exhibited good correlation with fibrinolytic activity in human donors and with thrombin generation and clot strength in an in vitro thromboelastography assay. These observations thus establish the biological relevance of the assay and suggest it may be a valuable biomarker in characterization and treatment of blood coagulation disorders.

UGT2B17 genetic polymorphisms dramatically affect the pharmacokinetics of MK-7246 in healthy subjects in a first-in-human study

MK-7246, an antagonist of the chemoattractant receptor on T helper type 2 (Th2) cells, is being developed for the treatment of respiratory diseases. In a first-in-human study, we investigated whether genetic polymorphisms contributed to the marked intersubject variability in the pharmacokinetics of MK-7246 and its glucuronide metabolite M3. Results from in vitro enzyme kinetic studies suggested that UGT2B17 is probably the major enzyme responsible for MK-7246 metabolism in both the liver and the intestine. As compared with those with the UGT2B17*1/*1 wild-type genotype, UGT2B17*2/*2 carriers, who possess no UGT2B17 protein, had 25- and 82-fold greater mean dose-normalized values of area under the plasma concentration–time curve (AUC) and peak concentration of MK-7246, respectively, and a 24-fold lower M3-to-MK-7246 AUC ratio. The apparent half-life of MK-7246 was not as variable between these two genotypes. Therefore, the highly variable pharmacokinetics of MK-7246 is attributable primarily to the impact of UGT2B17 genetic polymorphisms and extensive first-pass metabolism of MK-7246.

Molecular signature of smoking in human lung tissues

Cigarette smoking is the leading risk factor for lung cancer. To identify genes deregulated by smoking and to distinguish gene expression changes that are reversible and persistent following smoking cessation, we carried out genome-wide gene expression profiling on nontumor lung tissue from 853 patients with lung cancer. Gene expression levels were compared between never and current smokers, and time-dependent changes in gene expression were studied in former smokers. A total of 3,223 transcripts were differentially expressed between smoking groups in the discovery set (n = 344, P < 1.29 × 10(-6)). A substantial number of smoking-induced genes also were validated in two replication sets (n = 285 and 224), and a gene expression signature of 599 transcripts consistently segregated never from current smokers across all three sets. The expression of the majority of these genes reverted to never-smoker levels following smoking cessation, although the time course of normalization differed widely among transcripts. Moreover, some genes showed very slow or no reversibility in expression, including SERPIND1, which was found to be the most consistent gene permanently altered by smoking in the three sets. Our findings therefore indicate that smoking deregulates many genes, many of which reverse to normal following smoking cessation. However, a subset of genes remains altered even decades following smoking cessation and may account, at least in part, for the residual risk of lung cancer among former smokers. Cancer Res; 72(15); 3753-63. ©2012 AACR.

N-terminal propeptide of type III procollagen as a biomarker of anabolic response to recombinant human GH and testosterone

CONTEXT

Biomarkers that predict musculoskeletal response to anabolic therapies should expedite drug development. During collagen synthesis in soft lean tissue, N-terminal propeptide of type III procollagen (P3NP) is released into circulation. We investigated P3NP as a biomarker of lean body mass (LBM) and muscle strength gains in response to testosterone and GH.

DESIGN

Community-dwelling older men received GnRH agonist plus 5 or 10 g testosterone gel plus 0, 3, or 5 microg recombinant human GH daily. P3NP levels were measured at baseline and wk 4, 8, 12, and 16. LBM and appendicular skeletal muscle mass (ASM) were measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry.

RESULTS

One hundred twelve men completed treatment; 106 underwent serum P3NP measurements. P3NP levels were higher at wk 4 than baseline (6.61 +/- 2.14 vs. 4.51 +/- 1.05, P < 0.0001) and reached plateau by wk 4 in men receiving testosterone alone. However, wk 8 P3NP levels were higher than wk 4 levels in men receiving testosterone plus recombinant human GH. Increases in P3NP from baseline to wk 4 and 16 were significantly associated with gains in LBM (r = 0.26, P = 0.007; r = 0.53, P < 0.001) and ASM (r = 0.17, P = 0.07; r = 0.40, P < 0.0001). Importantly, for participants receiving only testosterone, P3NP increases at wk 4 and 16 were related to muscle strength gains (r = 0.20, P = 0.056 and r = 0.36, P = 0.04). In stepwise regression, change in P3NP explained 28 and 30% of the change in ASM and LBM, respectively, whereas change in testosterone but not IGF-I and age provided only small improvements in the models.

CONCLUSION

Early changes in serum P3NP levels are associated with subsequent changes in LBM and ASM during testosterone and GH administration. Serum P3NP may be a useful early predictive biomarker of anabolic response to GH and testosterone.

Peptide Shifter: enhancing separation reproducibility using correlated expression profiles

Chromatographic protein and peptide separation technologies enable comprehensive proteomic analysis of plasma and other complex biological samples by mass spectrometry. However, as the number of separations and/or fractions increases, so does the number of peptides split across fraction boundaries. Irreproducibility of peptide chromatographic separation results in peptides on or near the boundary moving partially or entirely into adjacent fractions. Peptide shifting across fraction boundaries increases the variability of measured peptide abundance, and so there is a trade-off between proteomic comprehensiveness using separation technologies and accurate quantitative proteomic measurements. In this paper, a method for detecting and correcting split peptides, called Peptide Shifter, is introduced and evaluated. An essential component of Peptide Shifter is a global peptide expression profile analysis that allows the inference of the underlying peptide shift pattern without the use of peptide labeling or internal standards. A controlled proteomic analysis of plasma samples demonstrates a 34% decrease in peptide intensity variability after the application of Peptide Shifter.

Guidelines for the routine application of the peptide hits technique

A set of guidelines has been developed for using the peptide hits technique (PHT) as a semi-quantitative screening tool for the identification of proteins that change in abundance in a complex mixture. The dataset that formed the basis for these experiments was created using a cell lysate derived from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, spiked at various levels with serum albumin (BSA), and analyzed by LC/MS/MS and SEQUEST. Knowing that the level of only one protein (BSA) actually changed in the mixture allowed for the development and refinement of the necessary bioinformatics and statistical analyses, e.g., principal component analysis (PCA), normalization, and analysis of variation (ANOVA). As expected, the number of BSA peptide hits changed in proportion to the amount of BSA added to the sample. PCA was able to clearly distinguish between the spiked samples and the untreated sample, indicating that PCA may be able to classify samples, e.g., healthy versus diseased, in future experiments. The use of an endogenous "housekeeping" protein was found to be superior to the use of total hits for data normalization prior to analysis. An ANOVA based model readily identified BSA as a protein of interest, that is, one likely to be changing from amongst the background proteins, indicating that an ANOVA model may be able to identify individual proteins in target or biomarker discovery experiments. General guidelines based on these combined observations are set forth for future analyses and the rapid screening for candidate proteins of interest.

Biomarker discovery in biological fluids

Discovery of novel protein biomarkers is essential for successful drug discovery and development. These novel protein biomarkers may aid accelerated drug efficacy, response, or toxicity decision making based on their enhanced sensitivity and/or specificity. These biomarkers, if necessary, could eventually be converted into novel diagnostic marker assays. Proteomic platforms developed over the past few years have given us the ability to rapidly identify novel protein biomarkers in various biological matrices from cell cultures (lysates, supernatants) to human clinical samples (serum, plasma, and urine). In this article, we delineate an approach to biomarker discovery. This approach is divided into three steps, (i) identification of markers, (ii) prioritization of identified markers, and (iii) preliminary validation (qualification) of prioritized markers. Using drug-induced idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity as a case study, the article elaborates methods and techniques utilized during the three steps of biomarker discovery process. The first step involves identification of markers using multi-dimensional protein identification technology. The second step involves prioritization of a subset of marker candidates based on several criteria such as availability of reagent set for assay development and literature association to disease biology. The last step of biomarker discovery involves development of preliminary assays to confirm the bio-analytical measurements from the first step, as well as qualify the marker(s) in pre-clinical models, to initiate future marker validation and development.

Identification of in vitro protein biomarkers of idiosyncratic liver toxicity

Drug-induced idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity continues to be an important safety issue for the pharmaceutical industry. This toxicity is due, in part, to the limited predictive nature of current pre-clinical study systems. A hypothesis was formed that treatment of existing in vitro hepatocyte cultures with drugs clinically linked to idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity would result in the release of extracellular protein biomarkers indicative of liver toxicity. To test this hypothesis, a combination of proteomic and immunological techniques were used to first identify, and subsequently verify, components of the protein-laden conditioned culture media from immortalized human hepatocytes which overexpressed cytochrome p450 3A4. These cells were treated separately with seven individual compounds made up of a combination of thiazolidinedione and l-tyrosine PPARgamma agonists and HIV protease inhibitors, plus a vehicle control (dimethyl sulfoxide). For each drug class, clinically determined hepatotoxic and non-hepatotoxic compounds were compared. Two proteins, BMS-PTX-265 and BMS-PTX-837, were reproducibly and significantly increased in the conditioned media from cells treated with each of the toxic compounds as compared to media from cells treated with the non-toxic compounds (and vehicle). This result supported the hypothesis, and so a series of successive assays (western blots and enzyme linked immunosorbent assays) were used to measure the response of these two proteins as a function of an expanded set of 20 compounds. For all 20 drugs, elevations of BMS-PTX-265 correlated exactly with the known safety profile; whereas changes in BMS-PTX-837 correctly predicted the safety profile in 19 of 20 drugs (one false negative). In summary, the data supports both the pre-clinical in vitro method as a means to identify new biomarkers of liver toxicity, as well as the validity of the biomarkers themselves.

In vitro biomarker discovery for atherosclerosis by proteomics

The purpose of this study was to identify in vitro and then prioritize a tractable set of protein biomarker candidates of atherosclerosis that may eventually be developed to measure the extent, progression, regression, and stability of atherosclerotic lesions. A study was conducted using an in vitro"foam cell" model based on the stimulation of differentiated THP1 cells with oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxidized LDL) as compared with low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Analysis of the proteins contained in the cell supernatant using proteome scanning technology identified 59 proteins as being increased, 57 with no statistically measurable difference, and 17 decreasing in abundance following treatment with oxidized LDL, as compared with LDL. From the up-regulated list, proteins were prioritized based on their analytical confidence as well as their relevance to atherosclerosis pathways. Within the group of increased abundance, seven families of proteins were of particular interest: fatty acid-binding proteins, chitinase-like enzymes, cyclophilins, cathepsins, proteoglycans, urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor, and a macrophage scavenger receptor.

Changes in the protein expression of yeast as a function of carbon source

Protein expression trends in yeast were monitored as a function of carbon source (glucose versus galactose) using multidimensional high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to gas-phase fractionation, using relative intensity triggering (GPFri). Size exclusion HPLC was used to separate whole cell lysates, and following proteolysis of these fractions, each was separated by reversed phase HPLC, which was coupled on-line via electrospray to an ion trap mass spectrometer. The GPFri technique increased the dynamic range of proteins detected by increasing the number of peptide ions subjected to low energy collision induced dissociation to the 24 most intense ions in each of the survey scans. No protein or peptide labeling was used; instead, the number of SEQUEST identifications for each peptide (previously termed "hits") were used as a semiquantitative means of assessing both the direction (increase vs decrease) and significance of change in protein abundance. None of the traditional SEQUEST filters, e.g., Xcorr, DelCn, Sp, Rsp, etc., were employed in this study. Instead, a Student's t-test was used to distinguish those proteins that significantly and reproducibly changed between carbon sources from those that did not. This relied on the SEQUEST misassignments occurring in equal proportion between treatments and thereby negating each other; statistically significant changes in SEQUEST assignments were nonrandom events by definition and therefore reflective of correct identifications. This method of data analysis showed a large degree of concordance with results reported by other groups in similar transcriptional profiling and proteomic experiments. In all, 176 and 231 (fold-change > or = 1.1; p < or = 0.05) proteins were identified as being increased in peptide hit number when the yeast cells' source of carbon was changed between glucose and galactose, respectively.

A high-yield method to extract peptides from rat brain tissue

A process to extract and enrich extracellular peptides and proteins from tissues should have broad utility in the burgeoning proteomics field. To address this need, a novel three-step protocol was developed to extract polypeptides from whole tissue samples and enrich the extracellular components. The initial homogenization of rat brain was carried out at neutral pH to optimize protein and peptide stability and solubility. Subsequent covalent chromatography on an activated thiopropyl resin was employed to debulk the tissue extract by selectively removing a substantial fraction of the intracellular protein component under nondenaturing conditions. Finally, extraction with 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid was used to selectively precipitate large proteins while enhancing the solubility of smaller proteins and peptides. The fractions from each step in the process were compared to a single extract obtained by homogenization in 0.5 M acetic acid. The recovery and yields of endogenous neuropeptides and an exogenously added peptide were evaluated by enzyme immunoassay and Western blotting, respectively. In summary, the three-step protocol was superior to the extraction of tissue with 0.5 M acetic acid in terms of peptide recovery, enrichment, and sample stability. Enrichment of the extracellular protein compartment from tissues should be valuable in proteomics experiments aimed at identifying biomarkers that can partition into serum.

Photochemical protease: site-specific photocleavage of hen egg lysozyme and bovine serum albumin

Site-specific photocleavage of hen egg lysozyme and bovine serum albumin (BSA) by N-(l-phenylalanine)-4-(1-pyrene)butyramide (Py-Phe) is reported. Py-Phe binds to lysozyme and BSA with binding constants 2.2 +/- 0.3 x 10(5) M-1 and 6.5 +/- 0.4 x 10(7) M-1, respectively. Photocleavage of lysozyme and BSA was achieved with high specificity when a mixture of protein, Py-Phe, and an electron acceptor, cobalt(III) hexammine (CoHA), was irradiated at 344 nm. Quantum yields of photocleavage of lysozyme and BSA were 0.26 and 0.0021, respectively. No protein cleavage was observed in the absence of Py-Phe, CoHA, or light. N-terminal sequencing of the protein fragments indicated a single cleavage site of lysozyme between Trp-108 and Val-109, whereas the cleavage of BSA was found to be between Leu-346 and Arg-347. Laser flash photolysis studies of a mixture of protein, Py-Phe, and CoHA showed a strong transient with absorption centered at approximately 460 nm, corresponding to pyrene cation radical. Quenching of the singlet excited state of Py-Phe by CoHA followed by the reaction of the resulting pyrenyl cation radical with the protein backbone may be responsible for the protein cleavage. The high specificity of photocleavage may be valuable in targeting specific sites of proteins with small molecules.

Comprehensive two-dimensional high-performance liquid chromatography for the isolation of overexpressed proteins and proteome mapping

A two-dimensional liquid chromatographic system is described here which uses size-exclusion liquid chromatography (SEC) followed by reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC) to separate the mixture of proteins resulting from the lysis of Escherichia coli cells and to isolate the proteins that they produce. The size-exclusion chromatography can be conducted under either denaturing or nondenaturing conditions. Peaks eluting from the first dimension are automatically subjected to reversed-phase chromatography to separate similarly sized proteins on the basis of their various hydrophobicities. The RPLC also serves to desalt the analytes so that they can be detected in the deep ultraviolet region at 215 nm regardless of the SEC mobile phase used. The two-dimensional (2D) chromatograms produced in this manner then strongly resemble the format of stained 2D gels, in that spots are displayed on a X-Y axis and intensity represents quantity of analyte. Following chromatographic separation, the analytes are deposited into six 96-well (576 total) polypropylene microtiter plates via a fraction collector. Interesting fractions are analyzed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/MS) or electrospray mass spectrometry (ESI/MS) depending on sample concentration, which both yield accurate (2 to 0.02%) molecular weight information on intact proteins without any additional sample preparation, electroblotting, destaining, etc. The remaining 97% of a fraction can then be used for other analyses, such Edman sequencing, amino acid analysis, or proteolytic digestion and sequencing by tandem mass spectrometry. This 2D HPLC protein purification and identification system was used to isolate the src homology (SH2) domain of the nonreceptor tyrosine kinase pp60c-src and beta-lactamase, both inserted into E. coli, as well as a number of native proteins comprising a small portion of the E. coli proteome.

Two-dimensional SEC/RPLC coupled to mass spectrometry for the analysis of peptides

A two-dimensional liquid chromatography system is described here which uses size exclusion liquid chromatography (SEC) followed by reversed phase liquid chromatography (RPLC) to separate the mixture of peptides resulting from the enzymatic digestion of a protein. A novel LC/LC interface, using two RPLC columns in parallel rather than storage loops, joins the two chromatographic dimensions. This new interface design permits the use of conventional analytical diameter HPLC columns, 7.8 mm for SEC and 4.6 mm for RPLC, making construction and maintenance of this system very easy. The reversed phase chromatography utilizes 1.5 microns diameter, nonporous C-18 modified silica particles, which produce fast and efficient analyses. Following the high-resolution two-dimensional chromatographic separation, an electrospray mass spectrometer detects the peptide fragments. The mass spectrometer scans a 2000 m/z range to identify the analytes from their molecular weights. The analyses of tryptic digests of ovalbumin and serum albumin are each described.

A multidimensional approach to protein characterization

When mass spectrometry (MS) is used to study protein primary structure, it is used in a "static" mode. That is, the information is derived from a single MS or MS-MS spectrum. Information about more complex protein structure or protein interactions can also be gained via MS. If a series of mass spectra is collected as something else in the experiment is changing, we increase the "dimensionality" of the MS data. For example, measuring mass spectra as a function of time after exposure of a protein to deuterated solvents can provide information about protein structure. Likewise, by measuring mass spectra of a protein as the concentration of a binding ligand is changed, one can infer the stoichiometry of the complex. Another important, but fundamentally different way of increasing the dimensionality of mass spectral data is by coupling the mass spectrometer to a one- or two-dimensional separation technique.

Comprehensive on-line LC/LC/MS of proteins

This is a description of a comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography (LC) system for the separation of protein mixtures. This system uses cation-exchange chromatography followed by reversed-phase chromatography (RPLC). The two LC systems are coupled by an eight-port valve equipped with two storage loops and under computer control. The RPLC effluent is sampled by both a UV detector and an electrospray mass spectrometer. In this way, complex mixtures of large biomolecules can be rapidly separated, desalted, and analyzed for molecular weight in less than 2 h. The system's utility is demonstrated with a mixture of standards and an Escherichia coli cell lysate.

Rapid separation and characterization of protein and peptide mixtures using 1.5 microns diameter non-porous silica in packed capillary liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry

Octadecyl-modified 1.5 microns diameter non-porous silica particles were packed in 150 microns i.d. (360 microns o.d.) capillaries with lengths of 20 cm which were used to separate proteins and peptides generated from enzymatic digests of proteins. Gradients were produced using an exponential dilution method at pressures of 520 Bar (7500 psi) and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry was used for detection. This system was similar to packed capillary perfusion chromatography with respect to chromatographic resolution and analysis time and had a limit of detection comparable to traditional packed capillaries which use 5 microns diameter porous particles. The analyses required as little as 250 femtomol of protein or 500 femtomol of peptide on-column in approximately 30 min. This technique was then applied to verify the existence of an overexpressed protein in an E. coli cell lysate and to confirm the presence of four glycoforms of a peptide generated in the proteolytic digest of an antibody.

Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis/liquid chromatography for the micropreparative isolation of proteins

Although comprehensive, column-based two-dimensional separation techniques offer enormous resolving power for a complex mixture, they often lack the ability to isolate the separated species for further analysis (e.g., proteins for Edman sequencing). This paper describes a micropreparative two-dimensional separation system for the isolation of proteins from complex mixtures, such as cell lysates. The system is composed of commercially available equipment: continuous-elution tube gel electrophoresis as the first dimension followed by gradient elution, reversed-phase perfusion liquid chromatography as the second dimension with a two-loop sampling valve as the interface between dimensions. The two-dimensional electrophoresis/liquid chromatography system (2D-EP/LC) shows high resolution of proteins since each dimension has orthogonal separation mechanisms (electrophoresis, size/charge; LC, hydrophobicity). Identification of proteins for further analysis is accomplished by superimposing a grid on the computer-generated 3D image.