Critical amino acids for the insecticidal activity of Vip3Af from Bacillus thuringiensis: Inference on structural aspects

Vip3 vegetative insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis are an important tool for crop protection against caterpillar pests in IPM strategies. While there is wide consensus on their general mode of action, the details of their mode of action are not completely elucidated and their structure remains unknown. In this work the alanine scanning technique was performed on 558 out of the total of 788 amino acids of the Vip3Af1 protein. From the 558 residue substitutions, 19 impaired protein expression and other 19 substitutions severely compromised the insecticidal activity against Spodoptera frugiperda. The latter 19 substitutions mainly clustered in two regions of the protein sequence (amino acids 167-272 and amino acids 689-741). Most of these substitutions also decreased the activity to Agrotis segetum. The characterisation of the sensitivity to proteases of the mutant proteins displaying decreased insecticidal activity revealed 6 different band patterns as evaluated by SDS-PAGE. The study of the intrinsic fluorescence of most selected mutants revealed only slight shifts in the emission peak, likely indicating only minor changes in the tertiary structure. An in silico modelled 3D structure of Vip3Af1 is proposed for the first time.

Pinning-dependent field-driven domain wall dynamics and thermal scaling in an ultrathin Pt/Co/Pt magnetic film

Magnetic-field-driven domain wall motion in an ultrathin Pt/Co(0.45  nm)/Pt ferromagnetic film with perpendicular anisotropy is studied over a wide temperature range. Three different pinning dependent dynamical regimes are clearly identified: the creep, the thermally assisted flux flow, and the depinning, as well as their corresponding crossovers. The wall elastic energy and microscopic parameters characterizing the pinning are determined. Both the extracted thermal rounding exponent at the depinning transition, ψ=0.15, and the Larkin length crossover exponent, ϕ=0.24, fit well with the numerical predictions.

Functional interactions between members of the REPAT family of insect pathogen-induced proteins

Studies on the transcriptional response to pathogens in the insect larval gut have shown the regulation of several genes after the infection. Repat (REsponse to PAThogens) genes were first identified in Spodoptera exigua midgut as being up-regulated in response to the exposure to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins and baculovirus. Recently, new members of the REPAT family showed a constitutive up-regulation in a B. thuringiensis-resistant population. Based on a yeast two-hybrid screening, we have detected the interaction of REPAT1 with other members of the REPAT family, leading to the discovery of a new member: REPAT8. The functional role of this interaction was shown by following the changes of the subcellular localization of REPAT1 in the presence of REPAT8. REPAT1 alone was localized exclusively in the cytoplasm, while the presence of REPAT8 led to the migration of REPAT1 to the nucleus. Finally, analysis of the expression pattern of eight REPAT members has shown that B. thuringiensis-related treatments (Cry1Ca toxin, Xentari™ product and an acrystalliferous strain) induced a general up-regulation of repat genes, especially of repat2. In contrast, no significant effect was detected after treatment with Escherichia coli or Enterococcus sp., or by the presence of microbiota in the midgut. The results suggest that the different repat genes play different roles in response to pathogens.

Expansion and relaxation of magnetic mirror domains in a Pt/Co/Pt/Co/Pt multilayer with antiferromagnetic interlayer coupling

We detail measurements of field-driven expansion and zero-field relaxation of magnetic mirror domains in antiferromagnetically coupled perpendicularly magnetized ultrathin Co layers. The zero-field stability of aligned ('mirror') domains in such systems results from non-homogeneous dipolar stray fields which exist in the vicinity of the domain walls. During field-driven domain expansion, we evidence a separation of the domain walls which form the mirror domain boundary. However, the walls realign, thereby reforming a mirror domain, if their final separation is below a critical distance at the end of the field pulse. This critical distance marks the point at which the effective net interaction between the walls changes from attractive to repulsive.

Magnetization reversal in Pt/Co(0.5 nm)/Pt nano-platelets patterned by focused ion beam lithography

Arrays of ultrathin Pt/Co(0.5 nm)/Pt nano-platelets with lateral sizes ranging from 30 nm to 1 µm have been patterned by focused ion beam (FIB) lithography under a weak Ga(+) ion fluence. From polar magneto-optical Kerr microscopy it is demonstrated that nano-platelets are ferromagnetic with perpendicular anisotropy down to a size of 50 nm. The irradiation process creates a magnetically soft ring at the nano-platelet periphery in which domain nucleation is initiated at a low field. The magnetization reversal in nano-platelets can be interpreted using a confined droplet model. All of the results prove that ultimate FIB patterning is suitable for preparing discrete magnetic recording media or small magnetic memory elements and nano-devices.

Dynamic binding of driven interfaces in coupled ultrathin ferromagnetic layers

We demonstrate experimentally dynamic interface binding in a system consisting of two coupled ferromagnetic layers. While domain walls in each layer have different velocity-field responses, for two broad ranges of the driving field H, walls in the two layers are bound and move at a common velocity. The bound states have their own velocity-field response and arise when the isolated wall velocities in each layer are close, a condition which always occurs as H→0. Several features of the bound states are reproduced using a one-dimensional model, illustrating their general nature.

Magnetic logic using nanowires with perpendicular anisotropy

In addition to a storage function through the magnetization of nanowires, domain wall propagation can be used to trigger magnetic logic functions. Here, we present a new way to realize a pure magnetic logic operation by using magnetic nanowires with perpendicular anisotropy. Emphasis is given on the generation of the logic function 'NOT' that is based on the dipolar interaction between two neighbouring magnetic wires, which favours the creation of a domain wall. This concept has been validated on several prototypes and the results fit well with the expectations.

Screening and identification of vip genes in Bacillus thuringiensis strains

AIMS

To identify known vip genes and to detect potentially novel vip genes in a collection of 507 strains of Bacillus thuringiensis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Following a polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) strategy, four restriction patterns were found within the vip1 family: vip1Aa1, vip1Ba1/vip1Ba2 and vip1Ca. In the screening of vip2 genes, patterns similar to those of vip2Aa1, vip2Ba1/vip2Ba2 and vip2Ac1 genes were observed. Patterns for vip3Aa1, vip3Ae2 and vip3Af1 were found among vip3 genes. Two new patterns revealed novel vip1 and vip3A genes. The observed frequency of genes belonging to vip1 and vip2 families was around 10%, whereas 48.9% of the strains showed amplification of vip3 genes. A tendency of vip and cry genes to occur together has been observed in this collection of B. thuringiensis strains.

CONCLUSIONS

Ten different patterns of vip genes belonging to the three vip families and two novel vip genes have been identified in this study.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This is the first time that vip1 and vip2 genes have been identified by PCR-RFLP. Furthermore, the results show that the strategy used in this study can lead to the classification of known vip genes as well as the identification of novel vip genes.

Genomic structure and promoter analysis of pathogen-induced repat genes from Spodoptera exigua

The repat gene family encodes midgut proteins overexpressed in response to pathogen infection in the lepidopteran Spodoptera exigua. Up-regulation of repat genes has been observed after challenging the larvae with both Bacillus thuringiensis toxins and after infection with the baculovirus Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus. In our study, PCR amplification of the genomic region and genome walking were used to obtain the genomic structure and the sequence of the 5'-upstream region of repat1 and repat2, two of the most phylogenetically distant members of the repat family. A similar gene structure between repat1 and repat2 has been found, with conserved exon-intron positions and junction sequences, suggesting a common origin for these genes. Recombinant baculoviruses carrying the firefly luciferase gene under the control of different 5'-upstream regions of the repat1 gene were constructed to elucidate the influence of these regions in gene expression. Infection of Helicoverpa zea gut-derived cells with the recombinant baculoviruses revealed the upstream regions of the repat1 gene which are involved in gene transcription and demonstrated the role of an intron located in the 5'-untranslated region in the enhancement of gene expression.

High resolution polar Kerr magnetometer for nanomagnetism and nanospintronics

A new high resolution polar magneto-optical (MO) Kerr magnetometer, devoted to the study of nanometer sized elements with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy, is described. The unique performances of this setup in terms of sensitivity (1.2x10(-15) emu), stability (lateral drift +/-35 nm over 3 h), and resolution (laser spot full width at half maximum down to 470 nm) are demonstrated, and illustrated by Kerr hysteresis loop measurements on a unique ultrathin magnetic nanodot, and over small segments of ultranarrow magnetic tracks. Large scanning MO Kerr microscopy images were also obtained with the same performances.

Creep and flow regimes of magnetic domain-wall motion in ultrathin Pt/Co/Pt films with perpendicular anisotropy

We report on magnetic domain-wall velocity measurements in ultrathin Pt/Co(0.5-0.8 nm)/Pt films with perpendicular anisotropy over a large range of applied magnetic fields. The complete velocity-field characteristics are obtained, enabling an examination of the transition between thermally activated creep and viscous flow: motion regimes predicted from general theories for driven elastic interfaces in weakly disordered media. The dissipation limited flow regime is found to be consistent with precessional domain-wall motion, analysis of which yields values for the damping parameter, alpha.

Modes of periodic domain wall motion in ultrathin ferromagnetic layers

Magnetization reversal in a periodic magnetic field is studied on an ultrathin, ultrasoft ferromagnetic Pt/Co(0.5 nm)/Pt trilayer exhibiting weak random domain wall (DW) pinning. The DW motion is imaged by polar magneto-optic Kerr effect microscopy and monitored by superconducting quantum interference device susceptometry. In close agreement with model predictions, the complex linear ac susceptibility corroborates the dynamic DW modes segmental relaxation, creep, slide, and switching.

Magnetic-field-induced orientational order in the isotropic phase of hard colloidal platelets

The magnetic-field-induced orientational order in the isotropic phase of colloidal gibbsite [Al(OH)3] platelets is studied by means of optical birefringence and small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) techniques. The suspensions display field-induced ordering at moderate field strengths (a few Tesla), which increases with increasing particle concentration. The gibbsite particles align their normals perpendicular to the magnetic field and hence possess a negative anisotropy of their diamagnetic susceptibility Delta(chi). The results can be described following a simple, Onsager-like approach. A simplified model is derived that allows one to obtain the orientational distribution function directly from the scattering data. However, it leads to an underestimate of the diamagnetic susceptibility anisotropy Delta(chi). This accounts for the difference between the Delta(chi) values provided by the two experimental techniques (SAXS and magneto-optics). The order of magnitude Delta(chi) approximately 10(-22) J/T(2) lies in between that of goethite suspensions and that of suspensions of organic particles.

Toxicity of several delta-endotoxins of Bacillus thuringiensis against Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) from Spain

Toxicity and larval growth inhibition of 11 insecticidal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis were evaluated against neonate larvae of Helicoverpa armigera, a major pest of important crops in Spain and other countries, by a whole-diet contamination method. The most active toxins were Cry1Ac4 and Cry2Aa1, with LC50 values of 3.5 and 6.3 microg/ml, respectively. At the concentrations tested, Cry1Ac4, Cry2Aa1, Cry9Ca, Cry1Fa1, Cry1Ab3, Cry2Ab2, Cry1Da, and Cry1Ja1, produced a significant growth inhibition, whereas Cry1Aa3, Cry1Ca2, and Cry1Ea had no effect.

Deroughening of domain wall pairs by dipolar repulsion

As a magnetic domain wall propagates under small fields through a random potential, it roughens as a result of weak collective pinning, known as creep. Using Kerr microscopy, we report experimental evidence of a surprising deroughening of wall pairs in the creep regime, in a 0.5 nm thick Co layer with perpendicular anisotropy. A bound state is found in cases where two rough domains nucleated far away from one another and first growing under the action of a magnetic field eventually do not merge. The two domains remain separated by a strip of unreversed magnetization, characterized by flat edges and stabilized by dipolar fields. A creep theory that includes dipolar interactions between domains successfully accounts for (i) the domain wall deroughening as the width of the strip decreases and (ii) the quasistatic and dynamic field dependence of the strip width s.

Domain wall creep in magnetic wires

The dynamics of a 1D domain wall (DW) in magnetic wires patterned in 2D ultrathin Co films is studied as a function of the wire width w0. The DW velocity v(H) is hugely reduced when w0 is decreased, and its field dependence is consistent with a creep process with a critical exponent micro=1/4. The effective critical field scales as (1/w0). Measurements of v(H) in wires with controlled artificial defects show that this arises from the edge roughness introduced by patterning. We show that the creep law can be renormalized by introducing a topologically induced critical field proportional to (1/w0).

Physical properties of aqueous suspensions of goethite (alpha-FeOOH) nanorods. Part I: In the isotropic phase

Depending on volume fraction, aqueous suspensions of goethite (alpha-FeOOH) nanorods form a liquid-crystalline nematic phase (above 8.5%) or an isotropic liquid phase (below 5.5%). In this article, we investigate by small-angle X-ray scattering, magneto-optics, and magnetometry the influence of a magnetic field on the isotropic phase. After a brief description of the synthesis and characterisation of the goethite nanorod suspensions, we show that the disordered phase becomes very anisotropic under a magnetic field that aligns the particles. Moreover, we observe that the nanorods align parallel to a small field (< 350 mT), but realign perpendicular to a large enough field (> 350 mT). This phenomenon is interpreted as due to the competition between the influence of the nanorod permanent magnetic moment and a negative anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility. Our interpretation is supported by the behaviour of the suspensions in an alternating magnetic field. Finally, we propose a model that explains all experimental observations in a consistent way.

Outstanding magnetic properties of nematic suspensions of goethite (alpha-FeOOH) nanorods

Aqueous suspensions of goethite (alpha-FeOOH) nanorods form a mineral lyotropic nematic phase that aligns in a very low magnetic field (20 mT for samples 20 microm thick). The particles orient along the field direction at intensities smaller than 350 mT, but they reorient perpendicular to the field beyond 350 mT. This outstanding behavior is also observed in the isotropic phase which has a very strong magnetic-field induced birefringence that could be interesting for applications. We interpret these magnetic effects as resulting from a competition between a nanorod remanent magnetic moment and a negative anisotropy of its magnetic susceptibility.

Shared binding sites in Lepidoptera for Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ja and Cry1A toxins

Bacillus thuringiensis toxins act by binding to specific target sites in the insect midgut epithelial membrane. The best-known mechanism of resistance to B. thuringiensis toxins is reduced binding to target sites. Because alteration of a binding site shared by several toxins may cause resistance to all of them, knowledge of which toxins share binding sites is useful for predicting cross-resistance. Conversely, cross-resistance among toxins suggests that the toxins share a binding site. At least two strains of diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) with resistance to Cry1A toxins and reduced binding of Cry1A toxins have strong cross-resistance to Cry1Ja. Thus, we hypothesized that Cry1Ja shares binding sites with Cry1A toxins. We tested this hypothesis in six moth and butterfly species, each from a different family: Cacyreus marshalli (Lycaenidae), Lobesia botrana (Tortricidae), Manduca sexta (Sphingidae), Pectinophora gossypiella (Gelechiidae), P. xylostella (Plutellidae), and Spodoptera exigua (Noctuidae). Although the extent of competition varied among species, experiments with biotinylated Cry1Ja and radiolabeled Cry1Ac showed that Cry1Ja and Cry1Ac competed for binding sites in all six species. A recent report also indicates shared binding sites for Cry1Ja and Cry1A toxins in Heliothis virescens (Noctuidae). Thus, shared binding sites for Cry1Ja and Cry1A occur in all lepidopteran species tested so far.

High genetic variability for resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in a single population of diamondback moth

The long-term benefit of insecticidal products based on Cry toxins, either in sprays or as transgenic crops, is threatened by the development of resistance by target pests. The models used to predict evolution of resistance to Cry toxins most often are monogenic models in which two alleles are used. Moreover, the high-dose/refuge strategy recommended for implementation with transgenic crops relies on the assumption that the resistance allele is recessive. Using selection experiments, we demonstrated the occurrence in a laboratory colony of diamondback moth of two different genes (either allelic or nonallelic) that confer resistance to Cry1Ab. At the concentration tested, resistance was dominant in one selection line and partially recessive in the other. Resistant insects from the two selection lines also differed in their cross-resistance patterns. The diamondback moth colony was derived from a field population from the Philippines, which originally showed a different resistance phenotype. This is the first time that an insect population has been directly shown to carry more than one gene conferring resistance to the same Cry toxin.

Variation in susceptibility to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins among unselected strains of Plutella xylostella

So far, the only insect that has evolved resistance in the field to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins is the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella). Documentation and analysis of resistant strains rely on comparisons with laboratory strains that have not been exposed to B. thuringiensis toxins. Previously published reports show considerable variation among laboratories in responses of unselected laboratory strains to B. thuringiensis toxins. Because different laboratories have used different unselected strains, such variation could be caused by differences in bioassay methods among laboratories, genetic differences among unselected strains, or both. Here we tested three unselected strains against five B. thuringiensis toxins (Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1Ca, and Cry1Da) using two bioassay methods. Tests of the LAB-V strain from The Netherlands in different laboratories using different bioassay methods yielded only minor differences in results. In contrast, side-by-side comparisons revealed major genetic differences in susceptibility between strains. Compared with the LAB-V strain, the ROTH strain from England was 17- to 170-fold more susceptible to Cry1Aa and Cry1Ac, respectively, whereas the LAB-PS strain from Hawaii was 8-fold more susceptible to Cry1Ab and 13-fold more susceptible to Cry1Da and did not differ significantly from the LAB-V strain in response to Cry1Aa, Cry1Ac, or Cry1Ca. The relative potencies of toxins were similar among LAB-V, ROTH, and LAB-PS, with Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac being most toxic and Cry1Da being least toxic. Therefore, before choosing a standard reference strain upon which to base comparisons, it is highly advisable to perform an analysis of variation in susceptibility among field and laboratory populations.

Update on the detection of beta-exotoxin in Bacillus thuringiensis strains by HPLC analysis

AIMS

The current work aimed to study the presence of beta-exotoxin by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in supernatant fluids from final whole cultures of the 69 type strains and 13 subtypes of Bacillus thuringiensis strains, as well as from some insecticidal strains.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Results from HPLC and bioassays with Ephestia kuhniella (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) were compared. Type I beta-exotoxin was only detected in type strains representing serotypes H1, H9 and H10a,10b. Discrepancies between HPLC and bioassays were found in H8a,8b and some insecticidal strains, which suggests the occurrence of another soluble toxin different from type I beta-exotoxin, possibly type II beta-exotoxin.

CONCLUSION

This study shows the need to use bioassays to determine the presence of beta-exotoxin activity. However, HPLC is a fast and sensitive technique if only type I beta-exotoxin is to be determined. The occurrence of beta-exotoxin in a type strain does not imply production of this metabolite by other strains belonging to the same serovar.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

These results complete the characterization of type strains belonging to the International Entomopathogenic Bacillus Collection (Institut Pasteur, Paris, France).

Different mechanisms of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in the indianmeal moth

Susceptibility to protoxin and toxin forms of Cry1Ab and the binding of (125)I-labeled Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac has been examined in three Plodia interpunctella colonies, one susceptible (688(s)) and two resistant (198(r) and Dpl(r)) to Bacillus thuringiensis. Toxicological studies showed that the 198(r) colony was 11-fold more resistant to Cry1Ab protoxin than to Cry1Ab activated toxin, whereas the Dpl(r) colony was 4-fold more resistant to protoxin versus toxin. Binding results with (125)I-labeled toxins indicated the occurrence of two different binding sites for Cry1Ab in the susceptible insects, one of them shared with Cry1Ac. Cry1Ab binding was found to be altered in insects from both resistant colonies, though in different ways. Compared with the susceptible colony, insects from the Dpl(r) colony showed a drastic reduction in binding affinity (60-fold higher K(d)), although they had similar concentrations of binding sites. Insects from the 198(r) colony showed a slight reduction in both binding affinity and binding site concentration (five-fold-higher K(d) and ca. three-fold-lower R(t) compared with the 688(s) colony). No major difference in Cry1Ac binding was found among the three colonies. The fact that the 198(r) colony also has a protease-mediated mechanism of resistance (B. Oppert, R. Hammel, J. E. Throne, and K. J. Kramer, J. Biol. Chem. 272:23473-23476, 1997) is in agreement with our toxicological data in which this colony has a different susceptibility to the protoxin and toxin forms of Cry1Ab. It is noteworthy that the three colonies used in this work derived originally from ca. 100 insects, which reflects the high variability and high frequency of B. thuringiensis resistance genes occurring in natural populations.

Mannose phosphate isomerase isoenzymes in Plutella xylostella support common genetic bases of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in Llpidopteran species

A strong correlation between two mannose phosphate isomerase (MPI) isoenzymes and resistance to Cry1A toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis has been found in a Plutella xylostella population. MPI linkage to Cry1A resistance had previously been reported for a Heliothis virescens population. The fact that the two populations share similar biochemical, genetic, and cross-resistance profiles of resistance suggests the occurrence of homologous resistance loci in both species.

Development and characterization of diamondback moth resistance to transgenic broccoli expressing high levels of Cry1C

A field-collected colony of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella, had 31-fold resistance to Cry1C protoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis. After 24 generations of selection with Cry1C protoxin and transgenic broccoli expressing a Cry1C protein, the resistance that developed was high enough that neonates of the resistant strain could complete their entire life cycle on transgenic broccoli expressing high levels of Cry1C. After 26 generations of selection, the resistance ratios of this strain to Cry1C protoxin were 12,400- and 63,100-fold, respectively, for the neonates and second instars by a leaf dip assay. The resistance remained stable until generation 38 (G38) under continuous selection but decreased to 235-fold at G38 when selection ceased at G28. The Cry1C resistance in this strain was seen to be inherited as an autosomal and incompletely recessive factor or factors when evaluated using a leaf dip assay and recessive when evaluated using Cry1C transgenic broccoli. Saturable binding of (125)I-Cry1C was found with brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) from both susceptible and Cry1C-resistant strains. Significant differences in Cry1C binding to BBMV from the two strains were detected. BBMV from the resistant strain had about sevenfold-lower affinity for Cry1C and threefold-higher binding site concentration than BBMV from the susceptible strain. The overall Cry1C binding affinity was just 2.5-fold higher for BBMV from the susceptible strain than it was for BBMV from the resistant strain. These results suggest that reduced binding is not the major mechanism of resistance to Cry1C.

Screening for Bacillus thuringiensis crystal proteins active against the cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni

Toxicity tests were performed to find among Cry1 and Cry2 Bacillus thuringiensis crystal proteins those with high activity against the cabbage looper. Tests were performed with neonate larvae on surface-contaminated artificial diet. The crystal proteins found to be toxic were, from higher to lower toxicity: Cry1Ac, Cry1Ab, Cry1C, Cry2Aa, Cry1J, and Cry1F (LC50 of 1.14.1, 3.4-4.4, 12, 34, 87, and 250 ng/cm2, respectively). Cry1B, Cry1D, and Cry1E can be considered nontoxic (LC50 higher than 2500 ng/cm2). Cry1Aa was moderately toxic to nontoxic, depending on the source (LC50 of 420 ng/cm2 from PGS and 8100 ng/cm2 from Ecogen). In vitro binding assays with trypsin-activated 125I-labeled Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, and Cry1Ac crystal proteins and brush border membrane vesicles from midgut larvae showed a direct correlation between toxicity and binding affinity. Heterologous competition experiments indicated that Cry1Aa and Cry1F bind, though only at very high concentrations, to the Cry1Ab/Cry1Ac shared high-affinity binding site.

Genetic and biochemical approach for characterization of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry1Ac in a field population of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella

Four subpopulations of a Plutella xylostella (L.) strain from Malaysia (F(4) to F(8)) were selected with Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki HD-1, Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. aizawai, Cry1Ab, and Cry1Ac, respectively, while a fifth subpopulation was left as unselected (UNSEL-MEL). Bioassays at F(9) found that selection with Cry1Ac, Cry1Ab, B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, and B. thuringiensis subsp. aizawai gave resistance ratios of >95, 10, 7, and 3, respectively, compared with UNSEL-MEL (>10,500, 500, >100, and 26, respectively, compared with a susceptible population, ROTH). Resistance to Cry1Ac, Cry1Ab, B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, and B. thuringiensis subsp. aizawai in UNSEL-MEL declined significantly by F(9). The Cry1Ac-selected population showed very little cross-resistance to Cry1Ab, B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, and B. thuringiensis subsp. aizawai (5-, 1-, and 4-fold compared with UNSEL-MEL), whereas the Cry1Ab-, B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki-, and B. thuringiensis subsp. aizawai-selected populations showed high cross-resistance to Cry1Ac (60-, 100-, and 70-fold). The Cry1Ac-selected population was reselected (F(9) to F(13)) to give a resistance ratio of >2,400 compared with UNSEL-MEL. Binding studies with (125)I-labeled Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac revealed complete lack of binding to brush border membrane vesicles prepared from Cry1Ac-selected larvae (F(15)). Binding was also reduced, although less drastically, in the revertant population, which indicates that a modification in the common binding site of these two toxins was involved in the resistance mechanism in the original population. Reciprocal genetic crosses between Cry1Ac-reselected and ROTH insects indicated that resistance was autosomal and showed incomplete dominance. At the highest dose of Cry1Ac tested, resistance was recessive while at the lowest dose it was almost completely dominant. The F(2) progeny from a backcross of F(1) progeny with ROTH was tested with a concentration of Cry1Ac which would kill 100% of ROTH moths. Eight of the 12 families tested had 60 to 90% mortality, which indicated that more than one allele on separate loci was responsible for resistance to Cry1Ac.

Binding and toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis protein Cry1C to susceptible and resistant diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)

We studied mechanisms of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal crystal protein Cry1C in the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.). Binding assays with midgut brush border membrane vesicles prepared from whole larvae showed no significant difference between resistant and susceptible strains in binding of radioactively-labeled Cry1C. These results indicate that reduced binding of Cry1C to midgut membrane target sites did not cause resistance to Cry1C. Thus, the mechanism of resistance to Cry1C differs from that observed in several previously reported cases of resistance to Cry1A toxins in diamondback moth. We tested Cry1C toxin and Cry1C crystalline protoxin against resistant and susceptible larvae using leaf disk bioassays. After adjusting for the size difference between Cry1C toxin and protoxin, we found that with resistant larvae, toxin was significantly more toxic than protoxin. In contrast, with susceptible larvae, no significant difference in toxicity occurred between Cry1C toxin and protoxin. The resistance ratios for Cry1C were 19 for toxin and 48 for protoxin. These results suggest that reduced conversion of Cry1C protoxin to toxin is a minor mechanism of resistance to Cry1C. Because neither reduced binding nor reduced conversion of protoxin to toxin appear to be major mechanisms, one or more other mechanisms are important in diamondback moth resistance to Cry1C.

Characterization of Bacillus thuringiensis ser. balearica (Serotype H48) and ser. navarrensis (serotype H50): two novel serovars isolated in Spain

The novel strains of Bacillus thuringiensis PM9 and NA69, isolated from soil samples in Spain, were classified and characterized in terms of their crystal proteins, plasmid profile, cry genes content, and their toxicological properties against several species of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera. Both strains share morphological and biochemical characteristics with previously described B. thuringiensis strains, although their unique H antigens identify them as two new serotypes. Two new serovar names, B. thuringiensis serovar balearica (H serotype 48) and B. thuringiensis serovar navarrensis (H serotype 50) are proposed for the type strains PM9 and NA69, respectively.

Insecticidal activity of strains of Bacillus thuringiensis on larvae and adults of Bactrocera oleae Gmelin (Dipt. Tephritidae)

The olive fly, Bactrocera oleae, is the key pest on olives in the Mediterranean area. The pest can destroy, in some cases, up to 70% of the olive production. Its control relies mainly on chemical treatments, sometimes applied by aircraft over vast areas, with their subsequent ecological and toxicological side effects. Bacillus thuringiensis is a spore-forming soil bacterium which produces a protein crystal toxic to some insects, including the orders of Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera and other invertebrates. The aim of this study was to search for isolates toxic to B. oleae. Several hundred B. thuringiensis isolates were obtained from olive groves and olive presses in different areas of Greece, Sardinia (Italy), and Spain and from cooperating scientists throughout the world. Some isolates were found toxic only to adults or larvae and some to both stages of the olive fly. In addition, the most toxic isolates were assayed on Opius concolor Szepl. (Hym. Braconidae), the most important parasitoid of the olive fruit fly. Only 3 isolates out of 14 gave significant mortality against this parasitoid. Several of the most toxic crystalliferous isolates may contain novel toxins since they gave no PCR products when probed with primers specified for 39 known toxin genes.

Factors involved in GLUT-1 glucose transporter gene transcription in cardiac muscle

Glucose constitutes a major fuel for the heart, and high glucose uptake during fetal development is coincident with the highest level of expression of the glucose transporter GLUT-1 during life. We have previously reported that GLUT-1 is repressed perinatally in rat heart, and GLUT-4, which shows a low level of expression in the fetal stage, becomes the main glucose transporter in the adult. Here, we show that the perinatal expression of GLUT-1 and GLUT-4 glucose transporters in heart is controlled directly at the level of gene transcription. Transient transfection assays show that the -99/-33 fragment of the GLUT-1 gene is sufficient to drive transcriptional activity in rat neonatal cardiomyocytes. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrate that the transcription factor Sp1, a trans-activator of GLUT-1 promoter, binds to the -102/-82 region of GLUT-1 promoter during the fetal state but not during adulthood. Mutation of the Sp1 site in this region demonstrates that Sp1 is essential for maintaining a high transcriptional activity in cardiac myocytes. Sp1 is markedly down-regulated both in heart and in skeletal muscle during neonatal life, suggesting an active role for Sp1 in the regulation of GLUT-1 transcription. In all, these results indicate that the expression of GLUT-1 and GLUT-4 in heart during perinatal development is largely controlled at a transcriptional level by mechanisms that might be related to hyperplasia and that are independent from the signals that trigger cell hypertrophy in the developing heart. Furthermore, our results provide the first functional insight into the mechanisms regulating muscle GLUT-1 gene expression in a live animal.

Optimization of solid-phase microextraction conditions using a response surface methodology to determine organochlorine pesticides in water by gas chromatography and electron-capture detection

A response surface methodology was applied to optimise the solid-phase microextraction (SPME) conditions using a polyacrylate-coated fiber to determine thirteen organochlorine pesticides from water. Analyses were performed using gas chromatography-electron-capture detection. Variables affecting absorption in both the headspace and immersion extraction were optimised by using a response surface generated with a Doehlert design, and the results were compared. The immersion SPME method was selected since higher recoveries were obtained for most of the compounds studied. The method developed was applied to the analysis of tap and Ebro river water samples. The linear range of most pesticides for real samples was found to be between 0.001 and 2.5 micrograms l-1 and the limits of detection were between 0.15 and 0.35 ng l-1. The repeatability and the reproducibility between days of the method (n = 6), expressed as relative standard deviation, for tap water spiked at a level of 1 ng l-1 were between 5.7 and 25.6% and between 7.6 and 26.5%, respectively.

Characterization of Bacillus thuringiensis serovar bolivia (serotype H63), a novel serovar isolated from the Bolivian high valleys

The type strain Bacillus thuringiensis var. bolivia (serotype H63), isolated from the Bolivian high valleys, has been characterized at different levels. Its parasporal crystal has an unusual shape and it is composed of a protein of 155 kDa which shows two bands of 75 and 80 kDa after activation. Analysis by PCR shows the presence of cry1 genes, and amplification with specific primers gave products for cry1 E, cry1 D, cry4 A and cry4 B with sizes different to those expected. Immunoblotting tests showed positive reaction for Cry1 E, Cry3 A, Cry4 A and Cry11 A crystal proteins. The plasmid pattern revealed two large and two small plasmids. Toxicity tests were performed against 14 insects and a slight toxicity was found against Plutella xylotella and Trichoplusia ni.

Apertureless scanning near-field magneto-optical microscopy of magnetic multilayers

We imaged magnetic domains in Pt/Co/Pt multilayers using an apertureless scanning near-field optical microscope operating in reflection mode. As the magneto-optical effects are weak for this kind of structure, a polarization modulation technique with a photoelastic modulator was used to reveal the contrast between magnetic domains. In the case of a Pt/Co/Pt trilayer structure, a strong improvement in lateral resolution is observed compared with far-field magneto-optical images and good sensitivity is achieved. In the case of a Pt/[Co/Pt]Pt multilayer structure, stripe domains of 200 nm width could be resolved, in good agreement with images obtained by magnetic force microscopy on the same structure.

Integrative model for binding of Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in susceptible and resistant larvae of the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella)

Insecticidal crystal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis in sprays and transgenic crops are extremely useful for environmentally sound pest management, but their long-term efficacy is threatened by evolution of resistance by target pests. The diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) is the first insect to evolve resistance to B. thuringiensis in open-field populations. The only known mechanism of resistance to B. thuringiensis in the diamondback moth is reduced binding of toxin to midgut binding sites. In the present work we analyzed competitive binding of B. thuringiensis toxins Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, and Cry1F to brush border membrane vesicles from larval midguts in a susceptible strain and in resistant strains from the Philippines, Hawaii, and Pennsylvania. Based on the results, we propose a model for binding of B. thuringiensis crystal proteins in susceptible larvae with two binding sites for Cry1Aa, one of which is shared with Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, and Cry1F. Our results show that the common binding site is altered in each of the three resistant strains. In the strain from the Philippines, the alteration reduced binding of Cry1Ab but did not affect binding of the other crystal proteins. In the resistant strains from Hawaii and Pennsylvania, the alteration affected binding of Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, and Cry1F. Previously reported evidence that a single mutation can confer resistance to Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, and Cry1F corresponds to expectations based on the binding model. However, the following two other observations do not: the mutation in the Philippines strain affected binding of only Cry1Ab, and one mutation was sufficient for resistance to Cry1Aa. The imperfect correspondence between the model and observations suggests that reduced binding is not the only mechanism of resistance in the diamondback moth and that some, but not all, patterns of resistance and cross-resistance can be predicted correctly from the results of competitive binding analyses of susceptible strains.

Environmental distribution and diversity of Bacillus thuringiensis in Spain

Bacillus thuringiensis was isolated from 301 out of 1,005 samples collected in Spain from agricultural and non-cultivated soils, dust from stored products, and dead insects. Based on the production of parasporal crystals, 1,401 isolates were identified as B. thuringiensis after examining 11,982 B. thuringiensis-like colonies. We found a greater presence of B. thuringiensis in dust from grain storages than in other habitats. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the spore-crystal mixtures revealed diverse populations of B. thuringiensis which were differentiated in at least 92 distinct protein profiles. Serological identification also showed great diversity among the Spanish isolates which were distributed among 38 of the 58 known serovars. The most frequently found serovars were aizawai, kurstaki, konkukian, morrisoni, and thuringiensis, which together represented more than 50% of the serotyped isolates. In preliminary toxicity assays, a number of isolates were found to show significant insecticidal activity against the lepidopterans Heliothis armigera (76.1% of the assayed isolates), Spodoptera exigua (50.5%), and Plutella xylostella (19.7%). Thirty five isolates were toxic to both H. armigera and S. exigua, and eight were toxic to S. exigua and P. xylostella. Four and one isolates were toxic to the coleopterans Leptinotarsa decemlineata and Colaspidema atrum, respectively, and three to the dipteran Tipula oleracea. The electrophoretic pattern and serovar of most of the isolates with toxic activity were consistent with those reported in the literature, although other isolates revealed unusual protein profiles, were assigned to new H serovars, or were included in H serovars not previously reported within such pathotypes.

Global variation in the genetic and biochemical basis of diamondback moth resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis

Insecticidal proteins from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are becoming a cornerstone of ecologically sound pest management. However, if pests quickly adapt, the benefits of environmentally benign Bt toxins in sprays and genetically engineered crops will be short-lived. The diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) is the first insect to evolve resistance to Bt in open-field populations. Here we report that populations from Hawaii and Pennsylvania share a genetic locus at which a recessive mutation associated with reduced toxin binding confers extremely high resistance to four Bt toxins. In contrast, resistance in a population from the Philippines shows multilocus control, a narrower spectrum, and for some Bt toxins, inheritance that is not recessive and not associated with reduced binding. The observed variation in the genetic and biochemical basis of resistance to Bt, which is unlike patterns documented for some synthetic insecticides, profoundly affects the choice of strategies for combating resistance.

Occurrence of a common binding site in Mamestra brassicae, Phthorimaea operculella, and Spodoptera exigua for the insecticidal crystal proteins CryIA from Bacillus thuringiensis

Specific binding to midgut membrane proteins is required for the toxicity of insecticidal crystal proteins (ICP) from Bacillus thuringiensis. A direct relationship between toxicity and binding has been proposed. It has been hypothesized that sharing of a single receptor by more than one ICP could lead to the occurrence of multiple resistance in the event of an alteration in the common receptor. Binding of CryIA(a), CryIA(b) and CryIA(c), three structurally related ICPs, has been studied in Phthorimaea operculella, Mamestra brassicae and, Spodoptera exigua using brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) from the midgut tissue. Using iodinated CryIA(b), the three insects showed similar results: one binding site for CryIA(b), which is shared with CryIA(a) and CryIA(c). The binding site concentrations obtained for CryIA(b) in P. operculella, M. brassicae and S. exigua were 5.1, 16.3 and 2.2 pmol/mg vesicle protein, respectively. In the same way, dissociation constants were 3.8, 5.3 and 0.7 nM. Data show that binding for an ICP does not directly imply toxicity. The occurrence of a common receptor for the CryIA subgroup of ICPs in P. operculella, M. brassicae and S. exigua might theoretically discourage the use of combinations of these ICPs in integrated pest management programmes.

Cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate regulates GLUT4 and GLUT1 glucose transporter expression and stimulates transcriptional activity of the GLUT1 promoter in muscle cells

We have previously reported that innervation-dependent basal contractile activity regulates in an inverse manner the expression of GLUT1 and GLUT4 glucose transporters in skeletal muscle. Based on the facts that muscle innervation decreases and muscle denervation increases cAMP levels, we investigated whether cAMP might mediate the effects of innervation/denervation on glucose transporter expression. Treatment of L6E9 myotubes with 8-bromo-cAMP, forskolin, or monobutyryl-8-bromo-cAMP led to a marked decrease in GLUT4 protein levels; 8-bromo-cAMP also diminished GLUT4 messenger RNA (mRNA), suggesting pretranslational repression. In contrast, L6E9 myoblasts and myotubes responded to 8-bromo-cAMP or forskolin by increasing the cell content of GLUT1 protein. Induction of GLUT1 protein was a consequence of the activation of different mechanisms in myoblast and myotube cells; whereas 8-bromo-cAMP treatment caused a substantial increase in GLUT1 mRNA in myoblasts, no change in GLUT1 mRNA was detected in myotubes. The increase in GLUT1 mRNA in L6E9 myoblasts induced by 8-bromo-cAMP was the result of transcriptional activation, as concluded from transfection analysis of 2.1 kilobases of the rat GLUT1 gene promoter fused to the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase gene. Furthermore, the stimulatory effect of 8-bromo-cAMP on the transcriptional activity of the GLUT1 promoter required a 33-bp sequence lying 5' upstream of the transcription start site. In all, cAMP inversely regulates GLUT4 and GLUT1 glucose transporter expression in muscle cells. Furthermore, our results suggest that down-regulation of GLUT4 expression and up-regulation of GLUT1 expression in muscle associated with denervation are partly attributable to cAMP.

Myogenesis and MyoD down-regulate Sp1. A mechanism for the repression of GLUT1 during muscle cell differentiation

Muscle cell differentiation caused a reduction of glucose transport, GLUT1 glucose transporter expression, and GLUT1 mRNA levels. A fragment of 2.1 kilobases of the rat GLUT1 gene linked to chloramphenicol acetyltransferase drove transcriptional activity in myoblasts, and differentiation caused a decrease in transcription. Transient transfection of 5' and 3' deletion constructs showed that the fragment -99/-33 of the GLUT1 gene drives transcriptional activity of the GLUT1 gene and participates in the reduced transcription after muscle differentiation. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays showed the binding of Sp1 protein to the fragment -102/-37 in the myoblast state but not in myotubes, and Sp1 was found to transactivate the GLUT1 promoter. Western blot analysis indicated that Sp1 was drastically down-regulated during myogenesis. Furthermore, the forced over-expression of MyoD in C3H10T1/2 cells mimicked the effects observed during myogenesis, Sp1 down-regulation and reduced transcriptional activity of the GLUT1 gene promoter. In all, these data suggest a regulatory model in which MyoD activation during myogenesis causes the down-regulation of Sp1, which contributes to the repression of GLUT1 gene transcription and, therefore, leads to the reduction in GLUT1 expression and glucose transport.