Eye blink frequency during different computer tasks quantified by electrooculography

The purpose of the study was to evaluate electrooculography (EOG) as an automatic method to measure the human eye blink frequency (BF) during passive and interactive computer tasks performed at two screen heights. Ten healthy subjects (5 males and 5 females) participated in the study in a 23 degrees C temperature and 30-35% relative humidity controlled simulated office environment. Each test subject completed a 2 x 10 min active task of computer work and a 3 x 10 min passive task of watching a film on a video display unit (VDU). Both tasks included two viewing angles: standard (the monitors' upper edge was in the same height as the subjects' eyes) and low (lowered by 25 degrees). EOG signals were recorded with two Ag/AgCl surface electrodes positioned above and below the right eye, and a reference electrode was placed behind the ear. The experiments were video filmed, and eye blinks were counted manually from the video recordings and compared to the EOG measurements. The method showed a high validity to detect blinks during computer work: 95.4% of the blinks were retrieved by the EOG method and very few artefacts from eye movements were erroneously classified as eye blinks (2.4%). By use of the EOG method, the computer task was found to significantly decrease the BF by 69% compared to the passive task (P < 0.001), and a small decrease (12-14%) was found by lowering the viewing angle by 25 degrees.

Adaptation to sudden unexpected loading of the low back--the effects of repeated trials

The purpose of this study was to investigate short-term changes in reactions to sudden unexpected loading of the low back. The study utilized a set-up where a horizontal force of 58 N pointing forward suddenly was applied to the upper part of the subject's trunk. EMG activity from the erector spinae muscles and trunk movement data were recorded during 10 trials for 19 subjects. The analysis included EMG reaction time, mean rectified EMG amplitude during the period 50-250 ms after the sudden loading, and time elapsed until stopping of the forward movement of the trunk (stopping time). Reaction time means ranged from 66 to 97 ms (79+/-9 ms), and no difference was found between the trials. Conversely, the mean stopping time for the first trial (468 ms) was significantly higher than for trials 3-10 (359- 371 ms), and the average EMG amplitude during the period 50-250 ms after the sudden loading was lower for the first trial. This study showed that some subjects adapted to sudden unexpected loadings of the low back through a reduction in stopping time and a progression in EMG response during the first few trials. This possible adaptation to repeated trials have been overlooked in previous studies.

A dynamic 3D biomechanical evaluation of the load on the low back during different patient-handling tasks

The objective of this study was to investigate the low-back loading during common patient-handling tasks. Ten female health care workers without formal training in patient handling performed nine patient-handling tasks including turning, lifting and repositioning a male stroke patient. The low-back loading was quantified by net moment, compression, and shear forces at the L4/L5 joint, measured muscle activity (EMG) in erector spinae muscles and rate of perceived exertion (RPE; Borg scale). The experiments were videotaped with a 50Hz video system using five cameras, and the ground and bedside reaction forces of the health care worker were recorded by means of force platforms and force transducers on the bed. The biomechanical load was calculated using a dynamic 3D seven-segment model of the lower part of the body, and the forces at the L4/L5 joint were estimated by a 14 muscles cross-sectional model of the low back (optimisation procedure). Compression force and torque showed high task dependency whereas the EMG data and the RPE values were more dependent on the subject. The peak compression during two tasks involving lifting the patient (4132/4433N) was significantly higher than all other tasks. Four tasks involving repositioning the patient in the bed (3179/3091/2932/3094N) did not differ, but showed higher peak compression than two tasks turning the patient in the bed (1618/2197N). Thus, in this study the patient-handling tasks could be classified into three groups-characterised by lifting, repositioning or turning-with different levels of peak net torque and compression at the L4/L5 joint.

Estimation of low back loading on nurses during patient handling tasks: the importance of bedside reaction force measurement

By means of video recording, measurement of ground reaction forces, and biomechanical modeling of the lower part of the body, the low back loading of nurses during patient handling can be estimated. In this study the force exerted on the bedside by a nurse during different patient handling tasks was measured, and the contribution to the moment at the L4/L5 joint was investigated. It is shown that the bedside reaction moment contributes significantly to the total moment, and could lead to substantial over-estimation if not appropriately included in the calculations, when using an upward biomechanical model for estimating the spinal load of nurses during patient handling tasks.

Exposure of welders and other metal workers to ELF magnetic fields

This study assessed exposure to extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields of welders and other metal workers and compared exposure from different welding processes. Exposure to ELF magnetic fields was measured for 50 workers selected from a nationwide cohort of metal workers and 15 nonrandomly selected full-time welders in a shipyard. The measurements were carried out with personal exposure meters during 3 days of work for the metal workers and I day of work for the shipyard welders. To record a large dynamic range of ELF magnetic field values, the measurements were carried out with "high/low" pairs of personal exposure meters. Additional measurements of static magnetic fields at fixed positions close to welding installations were done with a Hall-effect fluxmeter. The total time of measurement was 1273 hours. The metal workers reported welding activity for 5.8% of the time, and the median of the work-period mean exposure to ELF magnetic fields was 0.18 microT. DC metal inert or active gas welding (MIG/MAG) was used 80% of the time for welding, and AC manual metal arc welding (MMA) was used 10% of the time. The shipyard welders reported welding activity for 56% of the time, and the median and maximum of the workday mean exposure to ELF magnetic fields was 4.70 and 27.5 microT, respectively. For full-shift welders the average workday mean was 21.2 microT for MMA welders and 2.3 microT for MIG/MAG welders. The average exposure during the effective time of welding was estimated to be 65 microT for the MMA welding process and 7 microT for the MIG/MAG welding process. The time of exposure above 1 microT was found to be a useful measure of the effective time of welding. Large differences in exposure to ELF magnetic fields were found between different groups of welders, depending on the welding process and effective time of welding. MMA (AC) welding caused roughly 10 times higher exposure to ELF magnetic fields compared with MIG/MAG (DC) welding. The measurements of static fields suggest that the combined exposure to static and ELF fields of MIG/MAG (DC) welders and the exposure to ELF fields of MMA (AC) welders are roughly of the same level.

Extremely low frequency magnetic fields and fertility: a follow up study of couples planning first pregnancies. The Danish First Pregnancy Planner Study Team

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the impact of extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields on markers of human fertility.

METHODS

A follow up study of time to pregnancy, semen quality, and reproductive hormones was conducted among couples planning first pregnancies (36 males were welders and 21 were non-welders). The male and the female partner were monitored for exposure to ELF magnetic field by personal exposure meters. As summary measures of exposure the median value was calculated together with the 75 percentile value and the proportion of measurements exceeding 0.2 and 1.0 microT, respectively. Each summary measure was divided in three categories: low, medium, and high.

RESULTS

Couples in which the man had a medium or a high proportion of measurements > 1.0 microT had a reduced probability of conception per menstrual cycle compared with the men with low exposure, but the result was only significant for the men with medium exposure. This finding was partly attributable to a high probability of conception per menstrual cycle among the men with low exposure compared with non-welders in the original cohort of 430 couples. Other summary measures were not related to probability of conception or other markers of fertility. A possible negative association was found between high probability of conception and female exposure measures based on the median, the 75 percentile, and the proportion of measurements > 0.2 microT, but no association was found with the proportion of measurements > 1.0 microT.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings provide no consistent support for a hypothesis of a deleterious effect of low level ELF magnetic fields on markers of human fertility. However, due to the relatively small size of the studied population only large associations would be detected.

Exposure to high-frequency transient electromagnetic fields

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to assess exposure to high-frequency transient (HFT) electromagnetic fields in occupational and residential environments.

METHODS

Exposure to HFT electromagnetic fields was measured with personal dosimeters for 301 volunteers (396 measurements) in periods of 24 h in both occupational and residential environments. The study included electrical utility workers (generation, transmission, distribution, substation), office and industrial workers, and people living near high-power transmission lines. The measure of exposure to HFT fields was specified as the proportion of time (parts per million) in which the electric field exceeds a nominal threshold level of 200 V.m-1 at 5-20 MHz. Recently the specification of the HFT channel of the dosimeter has been found to be incomplete; therefore a testing of the threshold level and the sensitivity to electromagnetic fields from radio-telephones was carried out.

RESULTS

The percentage of measurements with a mean workday exposure above 0.1 ppm was 6.5-9.4% for the utility groups and 0.9% for all the nonwork measurements. It is likely that the use of radio-telephones has contributed significantly to the number of HFT events in some of the measurements, especially for the generation workers. The nominal threshold level of the dosimeter was found to vary considerably depending on the polarization of the field (20-400 V.m-1 at 13.56 MHz for one instrument).

CONCLUSIONS

Generally speaking, HFT fields appeared infrequently. The workday exposure to HFT fields and 50 Hz magnetic fields ranked the groups differently. There is a need for developing instrumentation for HFT field measurements further.

Exposure to power-frequency electromagnetic fields in Denmark

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the study was to assess exposure to power-frequency electromagnetic fields in various groups with normal or high exposure in occupational and residential environments.

METHODS

Exposure to power-frequency (50 Hz) electric and magnetic fields was measured for 301 volunteers (396 measurements) in periods of 24 h in both occupational and residential environments. The study included electrical utility workers (generation, transmission, distribution, substation), office and industrial workers, and people living near high-power transmission lines. Electric and magnetic fields were measured with personal dosemeters, and the mean values were calculated for work and nonwork periods.

RESULTS

The work-period magnetic field exposure, as the geometric mean of the distribution of the work-period means, for a group of selected industrial workers with high exposure was 6 [geometric standard deviation (GSD) 4.6] muT. The exposure level was 0.10 (GSD 2.4) muT for "normal" industrial workers and 0.09 (GSD 1.8) muT for office workers. For electrical utility workers the corresponding values were 0.72 (GSD 2.5) muT for substation workers, 0.52 (GSD 4.2) muT for generation workers, 0.36 (GSD 3.5) muT for transmission workers, and 0.15 (GSD 2.9) muT for distribution workers. The magnetic field exposure in normal residences was 0.04 (GSD 2.1) muT, and in residences near high-power lines it was 0.29 (GSD 2.8)muT. Corresponding results on exposure to electric fields are given in the study.

CONCLUSIONS

All of the measurements of exposure to electric and magnetic fields were below the values normally used as guidelines.