Evaluating the Use of Chemical Weapons for Capturing Prey by a Venomous Mammal, the Greater Slow Loris (Nycticebus coucang)

Few mammals are venomous, including one group of primates-slow (Nycticebus spp.) and pygmy (Xanthonycticebus spp.) lorises. Hypotheses for the evolutionary function of venom in these primates include defense from predators or ectoparasites, communication or competition with conspecifics, and the capture of prey. We tested the prey capture hypothesis in 75 trials with 22 wild-caught greater slow lorises (N. coucang) housed in a rescue center in Java, Indonesia. We experimentally offered the slow lorises arthropod prey items varying in size, escape potential, and toxicity and recorded venom-related and predatory behaviors using live and video observations. The slow lorises visually targeted arthropod prey, approached it quickly and efficiently, and captured it with a manual grasping motion. They rarely performed venom-related behaviors and seemed to do so in a defensive context. The slow lorises exhibited little variation in pre-capture behavior as a function of prey size or escape potential. In response to noxious prey, the slow lorises performed tongue-flicking and other investigative behaviors that indicate they are using chemosensory input to assess prey characteristics. These data suggest it is unlikely that slow lorises use chemical weapons to subdue arthropod prey and may support, instead, a defensive function for slow loris venom.

Effect of shade on biodiversity within coffee farms: A meta-analysis

Aligning crop production with conservation initiatives has long been a topic of debate, with agricultural intensification threatening biodiversity across the globe. Shade-grown coffee allows farmers to preserve biodiversity by providing viable habitat, but its conservation value remains unclear. In this meta-analysis, we screened existing literature using the PRISMA protocol to compare the effect of three shade intensities on species diversity and individual abundance: sun, low shade (LS) and high shade (HS). Furthermore, we examine differences between taxa, within taxa and between regions to establish which species benefit most from shade and whether these benefits vary dependent on geographical location. Out of 1889 studies, we included 69 studies in the analysis, and performed random-effects meta-analyses and meta-regressions. Overall, we found that species diversity was significantly higher in HS when compared to sun and LS, and species diversity in LS tended to be higher than in sun. In each treatment, the species diversity of birds was higher in the higher shade treatment, i.e., HS and LS. In addition, mammal and epiphyte species diversity was higher in HS when compared to LS. Similarly, studies from Latin America showed significantly higher species diversity and abundance in shaded farms when compared to sun farms. Studies conducted in Africa detailed the opposite relationship, with abundance being significantly higher in less shaded systems, highlighting that land-use strategies must be region-specific. Moving forward, strategies to conserve biodiversity within coffee farms should: 1) account for region-specific variables; 2) end further encroachment; 3) maintain connectivity; and 4) optimise yield through prioritising faunal and floral diversity.

Knowledge, Beliefs, and Experience Regarding Slow Lorises in Southern Thailand: Coexistence in a Developed Landscape

Natural landscapes are being converted for agriculture and other human uses across Asia and this development presents potential threats for specialist species of primates, like the Endangered slow lorises of Thailand (Nycticebus bengalensis and N. coucang). It is crucial to understand the interface between humans and slow lorises in order to conserve these primates. Local ecological knowledge provides valuable information about these cryptic nocturnal species. We conducted 36 semi-structured interviews in Khao Lak, in southern Thailand, asking (1) where slow lorises were seen, (2) what they were doing, (3) how often people see slow lorises, and (4) what people knew about them. We converted the interviews to free lists and determined the importance of key words. Our results show that the informants saw lorises frequently in six general locations: forests/trees (58%), electric wires (47%), towns/villages (36%), plantations (33%), homesteads (28%), and roads (17%). The most prominent places were forests/trees, wires, and plantations. Eleven key concepts defined local beliefs, with the most prominent being that lorises are awake at night (69%), eat fruit (42%), are not aggressive (25%), are bad omens (25%), and there used to be more of them (25%). Due to a minimal presence of persecution or exploitation of slow lorises by humans in the study area and general tolerance in the face of competition for the same resources and spaces, we suggest that, despite extensive persecution for the illegal photo prop trade in nearby Phuket, the people of Khao Lak seem to live in a state of passive coexistence with slow lorises. However, we did find some evidence that the pet and photo prop trade are still present in the area. It is crucial that coexistence be struck within the context of deforestation and urbanization so that conservation initiatives can take place within the community to further improve the lives of humans and the status of lorises.

Welfare and Management of Civets in Civet Coffee Tourism Plantations

Civet coffee is produced with coffee beans that have passed through the digestive tract of civets which are then processed for drinking. Outlets, known as civet coffee tourism plantations are popular tourist attractions in Bali, Indonesia. These outlets keep caged civets for public viewing and sell civet coffee. We assessed civet welfare in 29 civet coffee tourism plantations to assess husbandry factors, the five freedoms and body condition scores. We also assessed civet welfare in eight wildlife markets where civets are sourced for civet coffee tourism and calculated turnover of civets. We found 99 civets in civet coffee tourism plantations and 136 in markets, where. Annually between 400 and 800 civets are sold. Welfare standards do not meet the Indonesian laws and regulations. Diet, hygiene, presence of water and mobility affected body condition scores and no civet met all of the five freedoms. Enforcement of welfare and trade laws is needed to improve civet welfare, and to curb the illegal civet trade. Tourists frequenting civet coffee tourism plantations should be made aware of the low welfare standards to inform their choice about supporting this industry.

Road Infrastructure and Primate Conservation: Introducing the Global Primate Roadkill Database

As road infrastructure networks rapidly expand globally, especially in the tropics, previously continuous habitats are being fragmented, resulting in more frequent wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVC). Primates are widespread throughout many sub-/tropical countries, and as their habitats are fragmented, they are increasingly at risk of WVC. We created the Global Primate Roadkill Database (GPRD), the largest available standardized database of primate roadkill incidents. We obtained data from published papers, un-published and citizen science databases, anecdotal reports, news reports, and social media posts. Here, we describe the collection methods for the GPRD and present the most up-to-date version of the database in full. For each primate roadkill incident, we recorded the species killed, the exact location, and the year and month the roadkill was observed. At the time of publication, the GPRD includes 2862 individual primate roadkill records from 41 countries. As primates range in more than twice as many countries, the absence of data from these countries is not necessarily indicative of a lack of primate vehicular collisions. Given the value of these data for addressing both local and global research questions, we encourage conservationists and citizen scientists to contribute to the GPRD so that, together, we can better understand the impact road infrastructure has on primates and evaluate measures which may help mitigate risk-prone areas or species.

COVID-19's Impact on the Pan African Sanctuary Alliance: Challenging Times and Resilience from Its Members

The worldwide pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 challenged conservation organizations. The lack of tourism has benefited or negatively affected wildlife organizations in various ways, with several primate sanctuaries struggling to cope with the COVID-19 crisis and to keep providing for their inhabitants. In addition, the genetic similarity between great apes and humans puts them at higher risk than any other species for the transmission of COVID-19. PASA is a non-profit organization comprising 23 sanctuaries, and cares for many species of primate, including African great apes. In light of the pandemic, we aimed to understand the direct effects of COVID-19 on PASA management throughout three time periods: before (2018-2019), at the start of (2019-2020), and during (2020-2021) the pandemic. We collected data via annual surveys for PASA members and ran Generalized Linear Mixed Models to highlight any significant differences in their management that could be linked to COVID-19. Our findings demonstrated no particular impact on the number of primates rescued, employees, or expenses. However, revenues have been decreasing post-COVID-19 due to the lack of income from tourism and volunteer programs. Nonetheless, our results reveal a form of resilience regarding the sanctuaries and the strategy applied to maintain their management. Consequently, we emphasize the specific impacts of the COVID-19 outbreak and its repercussions for conservation work. We discuss the difficulties that sanctuaries have faced throughout the crisis and present the best measures to prevent future outbreaks and protect biodiversity.

Normal redefined: Exploring decontextualization of lorises (Nycticebus & Xanthonycticebus spp.) on social media platforms

Introduction

Decontextualization is a concept from psychology whereby new words are learned outside of the context of the here-and-now. Decontextualized language is used for discussing abstract concepts and is crucial to the development of academic language. When it comes to images, a dearth of context can lead to a lack of clarity, such as the use of ambiguous decontextualized images in environmental communication, leading to the promotion of greenwashing. Here we refer to decontextualization as the removal of wildlife from their wild ecological context. Images and videos of globally threatened species are increasingly popular on social media. Showing such taxa alongside humans may impact public perceptions of their abundance and need for conservation and can increase illegal trade. One group of animals that are particularly popular on social media platforms are the slow and pygmy lorises (Nycticebus spp., Xanthonycticebus spp.).

Methods

Here, we examined 100 videos from three popular social media platforms (YouTube, TikTok, and Giphy) to calculate how often and in which ways these videos remove slow lorises from their natural ecological and behavioural context. We also examined views and likes to determine viewer engagement trends. We used relevant content from each site to assess the presence of decontextualization using five conditions.

Results

In all but two videos, conditions of decontextualization were present and 77% of all videos had four to five conditions of decontextualization. Using Spearman correlation, we found a significant effect of decontextualization scores on the number of views and likes for YouTube and TikTok videos. Views were significantly higher when videos presented animals in anthropogenic settings (i.e., in human-made structures or in proximity of human artefacts). Additionally, views on TikTok and YouTube were significantly higher when animals displayed signs of stress or ill health and when they were in unnatural conditions.

Discussion

Our case study of lorises provides an example of the danger of decontextualizing wild animals on social media. Public preference for imagery where animals are neglected is indicative that better guidelines need to be put in place and policed by social media platforms. Additionally, conservationists need to develop strategies to promote wild imagery and further explore decontextualization if we are to understand and address the drivers of the rampant illegal wildlife trade online.

Applications of Accelerometers and Other Bio-Logging Devices in Captive and Wild Animals

Bio-logging devices have been widely used in ecology across a range of species to acquire information on the secret lives of animals in the wild, which would otherwise be challenging to obtain via direct observations [...].

Mixed-species association and a record of a hybrid offspring between Trachypithecus pileatus and Trachypithecus phayrei in Bangladesh

The term mixed-species association has a broad range of definitions, from temporary foraging association to permanent group living. A mixed-species association mostly involves species from closely related taxa and is found in birds, mammals and fish. It ranges from passive association with little interaction to coordinated behavioural interactions between the group members of a mixed-species group. Mixed-species association can result in the production of hybrid offspring in the wild. In this study, we present, to the best of our knowledge, the first observational evidence of mixed-species association between the two threatened primate species Phayre's langur (Trachypithecus pileatus) and capped langur (Trachypithecus phayrei), in fragmented forest patches of northeast Bangladesh. We also report a presumed hybrid offspring between these species. We conducted a short-term study from December 2021 to April 2022 in three forest patches based on information from eco-tourism guides. We confirmed the presence of three mixed-species troops; in two of the groups an adult male T. phayrei had permanently immigrated into a group of T. pileatus, and in the other one an adult male T. pileatus had permanently immigrated into a group of T. phayrei. A long-term detailed study is needed to elucidate the reasons for these mixed-species associations, their behavioural patterns, the fate of the presumed hybrid offspring, and to understand the genetic relatedness between the individuals.

It's a sign: Animal welfare and zoo type are predictors of animal identification signage usage and quality at zoo exhibits

Conservation education programs are listed as priority actions for almost every threatened species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. Zoos play an important role in delivering such programs, yet evidence of zoo education in many non-western countries is limited. Here, we evaluate animal identification signage prevalence and quality at zoo exhibits and investigate whether animal welfare, zoo type (accredited, government, and private), admission fee, zoo size, and proximity to urban centers are influencing factors. We used hornbills (Bucerotidae) as a model taxon, surveyed hornbill signage, and conducted welfare assessments of hornbill exhibits. We developed scoring frameworks and applied content analysis to analyze signage quality. Our results show that out of 18 zoos that displayed hornbills, 15 had hornbill signage. However, of the 106 hornbill exhibits in these zoos, 33% had no signage. We also found that signage presence or absence at individual zoos and signage quality is strongly correlated with animal welfare quality. Zoo type is a key factor in predicting signage and welfare quality, with accredited zoos scoring highest for both signage and welfare, followed by government and private zoos. Private zoos charged higher admission than other zoo types, and zoo size and proximity to urban centers did not influence signage or welfare scores. Overall, we conclude that in our study, signage usage and quality are inadequate, highlighting the importance of compliance with robust zoo standards to improve education and welfare within zoos to support global conservation goals.

Disentangling the Legal and Illegal Wildlife Trade-Insights from Indonesian Wildlife Market Surveys

Simple Summary

Throughout the world, wild-caught animals are traded in wildlife markets, but it is not always easy to disentangle what part of the trade is legal and what part is not. This may diminish the value of conducting wildlife market surveys. Conservationists narrowly focus on whether a species is legally protected, whereas in most countries there are several laws and regulations in place that guide the trade in wild-caught animals. Here we present empirical data from various species of birds recorded during wildlife market surveys in Indonesia and assess whether violations take place in terms of (1) protected species, (2) harvest quota, (3) welfare, (4) transport restrictions, and (5) importation. Our five distinctly different case studies showed that while it is challenging to distinguish legal and illegal aspects, in all cases it was evident that at least some aspects of the trade were in violation of Indonesia’s domestic legislation. By focusing on a wider range of legal restrictions, it is possible to get a good insight into the legality of wildlife trade, what interventions can be made, and overall, our study underscores the value of conducting wildlife trade surveys.

Abstract

It is challenging to disentangle the legal and illegal aspects of wild-caught animals that are traded in wildlife markets or online, and this may diminish the value of conducting wildlife trade surveys. We present empirical studies on the trade in birds (ducks, owls, songbirds, non-passerines) in Indonesia (2005 to 2021). Based on visits to wildlife markets, wholesale traders, and monitoring of an Instagram account, we examine if five specific pieces of legislation (domestic and international) are adhered to: (1) protected species, (2) harvest quota, (3) welfare, (4) provincial transport restrictions, and (5) illegal import of CITES-listed species. Our five distinctly different case studies showed that in each case, certain rules and regulations were adhered to, whilst others were violated to varying degrees. When trade involved non-protected species, there was frequently a lack of harvest quotas or trade occurred above these allocated quotas. Basic welfare provisions were regularly and habitually violated. Visiting wildlife markets and recording first-hand what is openly offered for sale is a highly reliable, verifiable, and valuable method of data collection that can give insight in numerous aspects of the animal trade. Our research provides support for recognising the urgency for the government to take appropriate action to curb all the illegal aspects of the bird trade in Indonesia.

The sticky tasty: the nutritional content of the exudativorous diet of the Javan slow loris in a lowland forest

Plant exudates are an important food source for many primates. The Critically Endangered Javan slow loris (Nycticebus javanicus) was previously found to prefer Acacia decurrens exudate in an anthropogenically disturbed site, while its feeding habits in secondary natural forest remain unknown. Knowledge of the chemical characteristics of the plant exudates that Javan slow lorises consume is limited, especially with respect to those that they feed on in natural forests. As plant exudates may contain plant secondary metabolites (PSM), which are considered unpalatable in high concentrations, differences in PSM composition may drive feeding preferences. This research aims firstly to confirm exudate consumption by the Javan slow loris in a lowland tropical forest in Central Java, and secondly to identify the chemical characteristics of the exudates consumed. We followed wild slow lorises in Kemuning Forest, Central Java and observed their behaviour. We investigated the gum-producing trees that were utilized by the slow lorises by tapping the exudates and examining their nutritional and PSM contents. We found that exudates are the predominant food source for the Javan slow loris in this lowland forest, and that their nutritional contents are similar to those of exudates consumed by lorises in anthropogenically disturbed areas. Significant differences in polysaccharide and flavonoid contents were found between consumed and unconsumed exudates. Knowledge of the diet of the Javan slow loris is crucial to its conservation, and our findings confirm the importance of exudates in its diet. We also highlight the need to preserve natural slow loris habitat, and to manage the diets of these species in captivity. The results of this study indicate that plant exudates should constitute a significant portion of the diet of captive slow lorises, and that the presence of exudate-producing trees is vital in areas into which slow lorises are to be translocated.

Silky sifaka (Propithecus candidus) use sleep sites for thermoregulation, food access and predator avoidance

Primate sleeping site selection is influenced by multiple ecological factors including predation avoidance, thermoregulation, and food access. To test these hypotheses, we studied the sleeping trees used by a group of wild silky sifakas (Propithecus candidus) in Marojejy National Park, Madagascar. During this ten-month study, the group slept in 828 sleeping trees from approximately 35 genera. In support of thermoregulation, generalised linear models revealed that as temperature decreased, the number of individuals sleeping together significantly increased and they slept at further distances from the trunk. As rainfall increased, sleep site height significantly increased. Weinmannia was the most frequented tree genus, despite low abundance, accounting for 29% of all sleeping trees. In support of food access, 94.8% of sleeping trees were food trees. Weinmannia is among the most highly preferred food trees. The group slept at a mean height of 16.0 m near the top of tall trees which averaged 19.5 m. Sleep trees were significantly taller than trees in botanical plots within the sifaka's home range. They never slept in the same trees on consecutive nights, and sleeping heights were significantly higher than daytime heights which is consistent with predation avoidance. Social sleeping in groups of two or three individuals (62.9%) was more common than solitary sleeping (37.1%). At such heights, huddling may increase vigilance and lessen the risk of predation by the fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox) while also reducing heat loss. These patterns suggest that silky sifaka sleep site choice is influenced by thermoregulation and food access in addition to predation avoidance. We suggest that understanding sleep site use can assist in conservation of species like silky sifakas by enabling researchers to find new groups, protect habitats with key tree species, and inform reforestation efforts.

Shifts of trade in Javan ferret badgers Melogale orientalis from wildlife markets to online platforms: implications for conservation policy, human health and monitoring

Wildlife trade is increasingly impeding the conservation of imperilled wildlife and is a potential threat to human health. Ferret badgers are extensively traded in China, although the trends, drivers and health implications of ferret badger trade in other parts of Asia remain poorly known. Here, we focus on the pet trade of a little known endemic small carnivore species, Javan ferret badger Melogale orientalis in Indonesia, over a 10 yr period (2011-2020). The Javan ferret badger is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species with an unknown population trend. We aimed to gain insight into the magnitude of this trade, its purposes, price trends, distribution records, health risks and shifts to online platforms. We documented 44 ferret badgers in 11 wildlife markets in Java and Bali and 100 ferret badgers for sale on online platforms. We observed a shift in trade from traditional animal markets only, to trade in these markets as well as online. Asking prices, corrected for inflation, declined significantly from ~USD 37 in 2012 to ~USD 22 in 2020, and were related to the purchasing power in cities where trade occurred. Widespread sale of the species highlights that enforcement continues to be overly passive as any trade in the species is illegal. We recommend that the Javan ferret badger be afforded full national protection and prioritised in monitoring efforts to establish its true conservation status. Additionally, concerted efforts are needed to determine if online trade poses a risk to conservation and human health.

Slow lorises use venom as a weapon in intraspecific competition

Animals have evolved an array of spectacular weapons, including antlers, forceps, proboscises, stingers, tusks and horns [1]. Weapons can be present in males and females of species needing to defend critical limiting resources, including food (rhinoceros beetles, Trypoxylus) and territories (fang blennies, Meiacanthus) [1-3]. Chemicals, including sprays, ointments and injected venoms, are another defence system used by animals. As with morphological weapons, venom can serve multiple purposes, including to facilitate feeding, in predation, and in defence when attacked [4]. Although rare, several taxa use venom for agonistic intraspecific competition (e.g. ghost shrimp, Caprella spp.; sea anemones, Actinia equina; cone snails, Conidae; male platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus) [4-6]. Another group of venomous mammals are the nocturnal slow lorises (Nycticebus) [7]. Slow loris bites often result in dramatic diagnostic wounds characterised by necrotic gashes to the head and extremities. Although these bites are the major cause of death of lorises in captivity, the function of this aggressive behaviour has never been studied in the wild [7]. Here, through an 8-year study of wounding patterns, territorial behaviour, and agonistic encounters of a wild population of Javan slow lorises (Nycticebus javanicus), we provide strong evidence that venom is used differentially by both sexes to defend territories and mates. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

The Influence of Seasonal Availability of Young Leaves on Dietary Niche Separation in Two Ecologically Similar Folivorous Lemurs

Traditional socio-ecological models consider that folivorous primates experience limited feeding competition due to the low quality, high abundance, and even distribution of leaves. Evidence from several folivorous species that experience similar constraints to frugivores does not support this hypothesis. The sympatric lemur genera Avahi (Indriidae) and Lepilemur (Lepilemuridae) are good models to understand how food availability constrains folivores since they are both nocturnal, folivorous, and have a comparable body mass. Here we investigate how two nocturnal folivorous primates, Avahi meridionalis and Lepilemur fleuretae, living in the lowland rain forest of Tsitongambarika, South-East Madagascar, partition their dietary niche and are influenced by seasonality of young leaves. To account for food availability, we collected annual phenological data on 769 trees from 200 species. We also collected behavioural data on 5 individuals per lemur species from August 2015 to July 2016 via continuous focal sampling. We found the phenological profile to be seasonal with peaks of leaf flushing, flowering, and fruiting occurring in the austral summer. The two species showed limited dietary overlap (37% rich period, 6% lean period), and A. meridionalis showed higher feeding time and longer daily distances travelled during the rich period. Lepilemur fleuretae showed a dietary shift during the lean period, relying more on mature leaves (73.3% during the lean period, 13.5% during the rich period) but maintaining similar activity levels between seasons. The time spent feeding on food items by A. meridionalis was positively correlated with the nitrogen content and negatively correlated with polyphenols during the rich period. We highlighted a clear effect of the seasonality of young leaves on the diet, nutritional content, activity patterns, and daily distances travelled by two folivorous species, which can be linked to nutrient balancing and time-minimising versus energy-maximising strategies.

Perceptions of animal welfare and exotic pet ownership in China

China plays a critical role in global biodiversity conservation, as both a biodiversity hotspot and for its role in international and domestic animal trade. Efforts to promote wildlife conservation have sparked interest in the attitudes held by Chinese citizens towards animals. Using a questionnaire, we sought to investigate the attitudes of 317 Chinese nationals across 22 provincial-level administrative units regarding their uses of animals, their perceived emotional capacities and views on exotic pets. We reduced the variables related to perceived uses of animals via Principal Component Analysis and ran Generalised Linear Models and Structural Equation Modelling to test relationships between questionnaire-derived variables. Perceptions of animals were divided into two Kellert categories — Utilitarian and Humanistic uses — and 97% of participants believed in animals capacities to have and express emotions. We found few interactions, with exotic pets, ie playing with or taking photographs, but the acceptability of owning an exotic pet influenced the likelihood of purchasing one. A belief that animals express emotions encouraged people to look for them as pets but thinking that pets make people happy made exotic pet ownership less acceptable. The shift in attitudes to include humanistic perceptions of animals, a belief in animals as emotive beings and understanding of terminology changed from the previous utilitarian views of pre-reform China, suggesting a readiness to embrace further conservation efforts in China. This deeper understanding of Chinese attitudes toward animals and drivers of the exotic pet trade within China may enable conservation efforts to better target future campaigns.

Risky Business: The Function of Play in a Venomous Mammal-The Javan Slow Loris (Nycticebus javanicus)

Immature mammals require opportunities to develop skills that will affect their competitive abilities and reproductive success as adults. One way these benefits may be achieved is through play behavior. While skills in developing use of tusks, antlers, and other weapons mammals have been linked to play, play in venomous animals has rarely been studied. Javan slow lorises (Nycticebus javanicus) use venom to aid in intraspecific competition, yet whether individuals use any behavioral mechanisms to develop the ability to use venom remains unclear. From April 2012 to December 2020, we recorded 663 play events and studied the factors influencing the frequency of play and the postures used during play in wild Javan slow lorises. Regardless of the presence of siblings, two thirds of play partners of young slow lorises were older and more experienced adults. Young lorises engaged in riskier behaviors during play, including using more strenuous postures and playing more in riskier conditions with increased rain and moonlight. We found that play patterns in immature lorises bear resemblance to venom postures used by adults. We suggest that play functions to train immature lorises to deal with future unexpected events, such as random attacks, as seen in other mammalian taxa with weapons. Given the importance of venom use for highly territorial slow lorises throughout their adult lives and the similarities between venom and play postures, we cannot rule out the possibility that play also prepares animals for future venomous fights. We provide here a baseline for the further exploration of the development of this unique behavior in one of the few venomous mammals.

Online trade in wildlife and the lack of response to COVID-19

Wildlife trade has been widely discussed as a likely origin of the COVID-19 pandemic. It remains unclear how the main actors in the wildlife trade chain responded to these discussions and to the campaigns advocating wildlife trade bans. We analyzed the content of ~20,000 posts on 41 Facebook groups devoted to wild pet trade and ran a breakpoint and a content analysis to assess when and how the COVID-19 pandemic was incorporated into the discourse within trade communities. Only 0.44% of advertisements mentioned COVID-19, mostly after WHO declared COVID-19 a pandemic. No traders discussed the role of trade in spreading diseases; instead, posts stimulated the trade in wild species during lockdown. COVID-19 potentially offers persuasive arguments for reducing wildlife trade and consumption. This effect was not demonstrated by on-the-ground actors involved in this market. Bans in wildlife trade will not be sufficient and additional strategies are clearly needed.

Illegal online pet trade in venomous snakes and the occurrence of snakebites in Brazil

Greater access to the Internet has boosted the online pet trade and especially enabled the trade in niche-targeted groups, such as venomous species. Despite their fearsome reputation, an array of venomous animals, such as snakes, spiders and scorpions arise interest among pet hobbyists, which exposes owners, sellers, and others involved in their transport and maintenance to potentially serious accidents by envenomation. To assess the potential risk to human health posed by the trade and ownership of venomous pet snakes, we examined social media posts trading or portraying native and exotic venomous species as pets (Facebook™ and YouTube™) and official seizures in Brazil between 2015 and 2020. In addition, we recorded all venomous snakebite events occurring in the country during the same period from the Brazilian Ministry of Health database. We compiled 114,931 venomous snakebite events resulting in over 600 human deaths. Bothrops spp. and Crotalus spp. were responsible for 86% and 10% of these events. We recorded 241 individual venomous snakes kept as pets of at least 16 species (seven native and nine non-native). The taxa with higher numbers of snakebites were also those most often kept as pets. Venomous pet snakes were sold at low prices, US$ 71.70 ± 18.44 on average. Our findings highlight a dangerous market, given the similarity of taxa raised as pets and those causing snakebites, combined with low availability of anti-venom for exotic species in Brazil. Additionally, several of the venomous pet snakes recorded are invasive species in many countries. Trade in venomous snakes is prohibited in Brazil, but the law is not well-enforced. To curb this illegal market and discourage consumer demand, we suggest that tougher penalties for sellers and owners should be considered, along with the development of awareness campaigns on the consequences of the snakebite injuries and the lack of antivenoms.

Nocturnal Primate Communication: Ecology, Evolution and Conservation

Auditory, visual and olfactory cues play varying roles in non-human primate communication, and these systems have been intensively studied over the last several decades. The use of vocalisations as a primary mode of communication has been the focus of much research, especially in attempts to understand the origins of human language, with a major focus on anthropoid primates and diurnal lemurs. Over the last decade, technological advances have allowed researchers to begin to conduct in-depth investigations into the communication systems exhibited by the nocturnal and cathemeral prosimian primates, including tarsiers, lemurs and lorises. Understanding how nocturnal prosimians use visual, olfactory and auditory cues is vital for reconstructing the origins of primate communication systems. In this special issue, we highlight some of the more exciting advances in the communication strategies of the prosimians. Contributions come from work conducted in Kenya, Tanzania, Senegal, Rwanda, Madagascar and the Indonesian islands of Java and Sulawesi. Topics will include: the description of novel ultrasonic vocalisations, including frequency and function of these newly discovered calls; the possible use of vocalisations to navigate and assemble at sleep sites; the importance of species-specific contact vocalisations for the identification of new species; the use of urinary and glandular signals to communicate and the methods developed to understand this complex communication in the field; the use of vocalisations for niche separation among nocturnal primates from mainland Africa and Madagascar; and whether or not we can use new technologies to discern whether prosimians use vocalisations for individual identification of group members. We discuss the importance of new field methods including novel equipment and techniques, the use of vocalisation to influence conservation practices and the importance of comparing across prosimian taxa to reconstruct the communication systems of our early primate ancestors.

Slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.) display evidence of handedness in the wild and in captivity

It has been suggested that strepsirrhines (lemurs, lorises, and galagos) retain the more primitive left-hand preference, whilst monkeys and apes more regularly display a right-hand preference at the individual-level. We looked to address questions of laterality in the slow loris (Nycticebus spp.) using spontaneous observations of 7 wild individuals, unimanual tests in 6 captive individuals, and photos of 42 individuals in a bilateral posture assessing handedness at the individual- and group-level. During the unimanual reach task, we found at the individual-level, only 4 slow lorises showed a hand use bias (R: 3, L: 1), Handedness index (HI) ranged from -0.57 to 1.00. In the wild unimanual grasp task, we found at the individual-level two individual showed a right-hand bias, the HI ranged from -0.19 to 0.70. The bilateral venom pose showed a trend toward a right-hand dominant grip in those photographed in captivity, but an ambiguous difference in wild individuals. There are many environmental constraints in captivity that wild animals do not face, thus data collected in wild settings are more representative of their natural state. The presence of right-handedness in these species suggests that there is a need to re-evaluate the evolution of handedness in primates.

A novel application of cultural consensus models to evaluate conservation education programs

Conservation professionals recognize the need to evaluate education initiatives with a flexible approach that is culturally appropriate. Cultural-consensus theory (CCT) provides a framework for measuring the extent to which beliefs are communally held and has long been applied by social scientists. In a conservation-education context, we applied CCT and used free lists (i.e., a list of items on a topic stated in order of cultural importance) and domain analysis (analysis of how free lists go together within a cultural group) to evaluate a conservation education program in which we used a children's picture book to increase knowledge about and empathy for a critically endangered mammal, the Javan slow loris (Nycticebus javanicus). We extracted free lists of keywords generated by students (n = 580 in 18 schools) from essays they wrote before and after the education program. In 2 classroom sessions conducted approximately 18 weeks apart, we asked students to write an essay about their knowledge of the target species and then presented a book and several activities about slow loris ecology. Prior to the second session, we asked students to write a second essay. We generated free lists from both essays, quantified salience of terms used, and conducted minimal residuals factor analysis to determine presence of cultural domains surrounding slow lorises in each session. Students increased their use of words accurately associated with slow loris ecology and conservation from 43% in initial essays to 76% in final essays. Domain coherence increased from 22% to 47% across schools. Fifteen factors contributed to the domain slow loris. Between the first and second essays, factors that showed the greatest change were feeding ecology and slow loris as a forest protector, which increased 7-fold, and the humancentric factor, which decreased 5-fold. As demonstrated by knowledge retention and creation of unique stories and conservation opinions, children achieved all six levels of Bloom's taxonomy of learning domains. Free from the constraints of questionnaires and surveys, CCT methods provide a promising avenue to evaluate conservation education programs.

Welfare impacts of the illegal wildlife trade in a cohort of confiscated greater slow lorises, Nycticebus coucang

Illegal harvesting and trade are major forces behind population declines of wild slow lorises (genus Nycticebus). The impacts of the wildlife trade on individual slow lorises have not been as well described. In this article, we describe quantitatively the consequences of the wildlife trade for 77 greater slow lorises, N. coucang, who were confiscated en masse and brought to Cikananga Wildlife Center in Indonesia. Medical records indicated that in total, 28.6% of the slow lorises died within the first 6 months, mostly due to traumatic injury, and all the infants died. The greatest sources of morbidity were external wounds (33.1% of 166 total medical events) and dental problems (19.3%). Of the surviving individuals, 25.4% displayed abnormal behavior. Behavioral observations indicated that healthy adults (n = 3) spent 48.2% of their active period performing stereotypies. These data illustrate the physical and behavioral impacts of the illegal wildlife trade on the welfare of slow lorises. We suggest that sharing these individual stories may help generate empathy and educate the public about the impacts of the exotic companion-animal (pet) trade on nonhuman animal welfare.

Hiding in the dark: Local ecological knowledge about slow loris in Sarawak sheds light on relationships between human populations and wild animals

Local ecological knowledge (LEK) increases understanding of certain species and the threats they face, especially little-studied taxa for which data on distribution and conservation are often lacking. We conducted 111 semi-structured interviews in Sarawak, Malaysia, to collect local knowledge about the behavior and distribution of the Philippine slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis) from two ethnic groups, the Iban and the Penan. Our study revealed that male Penan respondents, generally hunters, who frequently go into the forest were better at identifying animals from pictures. Overall, the Penan have a more detailed knowledge of slow loris behaviors, habitat, and distribution than the Iban. The two ethnic groups have different attitudes towards slow loris as the Penan hunt, eat, or keep them as pets while the Iban consider them sacred and signifiers of good luck. We advocate the use of LEK for providing complementary information to scientific methods in the study of cryptic animals.

Provide context when reporting on the use of protected and endangered wildlife in ethnopharmacological surveys

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The value of reports on the use of wildlife in ethnopharmacological surveys increases when context is provided on the legality of its use and on the species' conservation status.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate if context is provided when protected and threatened animals are reported as being used in traditional medicine, and to provide recommendations for future reporting.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Review of recent papers in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

RESULTS

Rarely is information provided on (1) the conservation status of the animals that are used in traditional medicine, (2) whether the parts can be obtained non-invasively or if the animals have to be killed, or (3) whether or not it is legal to use the animals, their parts or derivatives according to national law.

CONCLUSION

When presenting the results of ethnopharmalogical surveys include (1) the conservation status of the species affected, (2) whether or not parts could be harvested non-invasively and (3) the legality of harvesting and / or trading these animals, their parts or their derivatives. Our focus here is on animals, given that more so than in plants or fungi, many of their parts used in natural medicine cannot be obtained non-invasively, but a similar set of guidelines could be developed for other taxa.

Changes in the primate trade in indonesian wildlife markets over a 25-year period: Fewer apes and langurs, more macaques, and slow lorises

Indonesia has amongst the highest primate species richness, and many species are included on the country's protected species list, partially to prevent over-exploitation. Nevertheless traders continue to sell primates in open wildlife markets especially on the islands of Java and Bali. We surveyed 13 wildlife markets in 2012-2014 and combined our results with previous surveys from 1990-2009 into a 122-survey dataset with 2,424 records of 17 species. These data showed that the diversity of species in trade decreased over time, shifting from rare rainforest-dwelling primates traded alongside more widespread species that are not confined to forest to the latter type only. In the 1990s and early 2000s orangutans, gibbons and langurs were commonly traded alongside macaques and slow lorises but in the last decade macaques and slow lorises comprised the bulk of the trade. In 2012-2014 we monitored six wildlife markets in Jakarta, Bandung and Garut (all on Java), and Denpasar (Bali). During 51 surveys we recorded 1,272 primates of eight species. Traders offered long-tailed macaque (total 1,007 individuals) and three species of slow loris (228 individuals) in five of the six markets, whereas they traded ebony langurs (18 individuals), and pig-tailed macaques (14 individuals) mostly in Jakarta. Pramuka and Jatinegara markets, both in Jakarta, stood out as important hubs for the primate trade, with a clear shift in importance over time from the former to the latter. Slow lorises, orangutans, gibbons and some langurs are protected under Indonesian law, which prohibits all trade in them; of these protected species, only the slow lorises remained common in trade throughout the 25-year period. Trade in non-protected macaques and langurs is subject to strict regulations-which market traders did not follow-making all the market trade in primates that we observed illegal. Trade poses a substantial threat to Indonesian primates, and without enforcement, the sheer volume of trade may mean that species of Least Concern or Near Threatened may rapidly decline. Am. J. Primatol. 79:e22517, 2017. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Does toxic defence in Nycticebus spp. relate to ectoparasites? The lethal effects of slow loris venom on arthropods

The venom produced by slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.) is toxic both intra- and inter-specifically. In this study we assessed the ecoparasite repellent properties of their venom. We tested venom from two Indonesian slow loris species: Nycticebus javanicus and Nycticebus coucang. Arthropods directly exposed to brachial gland secretions mixed with saliva from both species were immediately impaired or exhibited reduced activity (76%), and often died as a result (61%). We found no significant difference in the result of 60-min trials between N. coucang and N. javanicus [X(2)(1, n = 140) = 2.110, p = 0.3482]. We found evidence that the degree of lethality of the venom varies according to the arthropod taxa to which it is exposed. While most maggots (84%) were initially impaired from the venom after 10 min, maggots died after a 1 h trial 42% of the time. In contrast, at the end of 1 h trial, spiders died 78% of the time. For all arthropods, the average time to death from exposure was less than 25 min (M = 24.40, SD = 22.60). Ectoparasites including ticks, members of the arachnid order, are known to transmit pathogens to hosts and may be an intended target of the toxic secretions. Our results suggest that one function of slow loris venom is to repel parasites that affect their fitness, and that their topical anointing behaviour may be an adaptive response to ectoparasites.

Taxonomy of the Bornean slow loris, with new species Nycticebus kayan (Primates, Lorisidae)

More species of nocturnal primates are now recognized than in the past, because many are cryptic species. Subtle morphological disparities, such as pelage pattern and color variation, vocal cues, and genetics have aided in elucidating the number of diagnosable species in a genus. The slow lorises (genus Nycticebus) once included only two species, but recent taxonomic studies resulted in the description of three additional species; further incompletely explored variability characterizes each of the currently described species. The Bornean loris in particular is characterized by pelage and body size variation. In this study, we explored facemask variation in the Bornean loris (N. menagensis). Differing facemask patterns, particularly influenced by the amount of white on the face, significantly clustered together by geographic regions, separated by notable geographic boundaries. Our results support the recognition of four species of Bornean lorises: N. menagensis, N. bancanus, N. borneanus, and N. kayan. Genetic studies are required to support these findings and to refine further our understanding of the marked variability within the Bornean loris populations.