Hurricanes, El Niño and harmful algal blooms in two sub-tropical Florida estuaries: Direct and indirect impacts

Future increases in the intensity of hurricanes and El Niño periods predicted by climate change models have focused attention on their role in stimulating harmful algal blooms (HABs). A series of hurricanes that recently impacted Florida (USA) provided a unique opportunity to explore the relationships between hurricanes, El Niño and HABs in two Florida estuaries subject to repeated intense ecosystem disruptive HABs, the Indian River Lagoon and the St. Lucie Estuary. The roles that hurricanes and El Niño play in contributing to HAB events are examined in the context of key structural and functional features of each estuary and their watersheds, including morphology, water residence time and hydrology, such as the influence of Lake Okeechobee discharges into the St. Lucie Estuary. The most direct impact was the increase in rainfall associated with hurricanes and El Niño, resulting in enhanced nutrient loads which drive HABs in the Indian River Lagoon and Lake Okeechobee. Major HABs in Lake Okeechobee also present an indirect threat of freshwater HAB blooms in the St. Lucie Estuary via mandated discharges from the lake into the estuary during high rainfall periods. Conversely, during the absence of HABs in Lake Okeechobee, short water residence times produced by discharges into the St. Lucie Estuary can result in lower bloom intensities.

It Takes Two to Tango: When and Where Dual Nutrient (N & P) Reductions Are Needed to Protect Lakes and Downstream Ecosystems

Preventing harmful algal blooms (HABs) is needed to protect lakes and downstream ecosystems. Traditionally, reducing phosphorus (P) inputs was the prescribed solution for lakes, based on the assumption that P universally limits HAB formation. Reduction of P inputs has decreased HABs in many lakes, but was not successful in others. Thus, the "P-only" paradigm is overgeneralized. Whole-lake experiments indicate that HABs are often stimulated more by combined P and nitrogen (N) enrichment rather than N or P alone, indicating that the dynamics of both nutrients are important for HAB control. The changing paradigm from P-only to consideration of dual nutrient control is supported by studies indicating that (1) biological N fixation cannot always meet lake ecosystem N needs, and (2) that anthropogenic N and P loading has increased dramatically in recent decades. Sediment P accumulation supports long-term internal loading, while N may escape via denitrification, leading to perpetual N deficits. Hence, controlling both N and P inputs will help control HABs in some lakes and also reduce N export to downstream N-sensitive ecosystems. Managers should consider whether balanced control of N and P will most effectively reduce HABs along the freshwater-marine continuum.

Mitigating cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms in aquatic ecosystems impacted by climate change and anthropogenic nutrients

Mitigating the global expansion of cyanobacterial harmful blooms (CyanoHABs) is a major challenge facing researchers and resource managers. A variety of traditional (e.g., nutrient load reduction) and experimental (e.g., artificial mixing and flushing, omnivorous fish removal) approaches have been used to reduce bloom occurrences. Managers now face the additional effects of climate change on watershed hydrologic and nutrient loading dynamics, lake and estuary temperature, mixing regime, internal nutrient dynamics, and other factors. Those changes favor CyanoHABs over other phytoplankton and could influence the efficacy of control measures. Virtually all mitigation strategies are influenced by climate changes, which may require setting new nutrient input reduction targets and establishing nutrient-bloom thresholds for impacted waters. Physical-forcing mitigation techniques, such as flushing and artificial mixing, will need adjustments to deal with the ramifications of climate change. Here, we examine the suite of current mitigation strategies and the potential options for adapting and optimizing them in a world facing increasing human population pressure and climate change.

Predicting ecological responses of the Florida Everglades to possible future climate scenarios: introduction

Florida's Everglades stretch from the headwaters of the Kissimmee River near Orlando to Florida Bay. Under natural conditions in this flat landscape, water flowed slowly downstream as broad, shallow sheet flow. The ecosystem is markedly different now, altered by nutrient pollution and construction of canals, levees, and water control structures designed for flood control and water supply. These alterations have resulted in a 50% reduction of the ecosystem's spatial extent and significant changes in ecological function in the remaining portion. One of the world's largest restoration programs is underway to restore some of the historic hydrologic and ecological functions of the Everglades, via a multi-billion dollar Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan. This plan, finalized in 2000, did not explicitly consider climate change effects, yet today we realize that sea level rise and future changes in rainfall (RF), temperature, and evapotranspiration (ET) may have system-wide impacts. This series of papers describes results of a workshop where a regional hydrologic model was used to simulate the hydrology expected in 2060 with climate changes including increased temperature, ET, and sea level, and either an increase or decrease in RF. Ecologists with expertise in various areas of the ecosystem evaluated the hydrologic outputs, drew conclusions about potential ecosystem responses, and identified research needs where projections of response had high uncertainty. Resource managers participated in the workshop, and they present lessons learned regarding how the new information might be used to guide Everglades restoration in the context of climate change.

Ecological responses of a large shallow lake (Okeechobee, Florida) to climate change and potential future hydrologic regimes

We considered how Lake Okeechobee, a large shallow lake in Florida, USA, might respond to altered hydrology associated with climate change scenarios in 2060. Water budgets and stage hydrographs were provided from the South Florida Water Management Model, a regional hydrologic model used to develop plans for Everglades restoration. Future scenarios include a 10% increase or decrease in rainfall (RF) and a calculated increase in evapotranspiration (ET), which is based on a 1.5 °C rise in temperature. Increasing RF and ET had counter-balancing effects on the water budget and when changing concurrently did not affect hydrology. In contrast, when RF decreased while ET increased, this resulted in a large change in hydrology. The surface elevation of the lake dropped by more than 2 m under this scenario compared to a future base condition, and extreme low elevation persisted for multiple years. In this declining RF/increasing ET scenario, the littoral and near-shore zones, areas that support emergent and submerged plants, were dry 55% of the time compared to less than 4% of the time in the future base run. There also were times when elevation increased as much as 3 m after intense RF events. Overall, these changes in hydrologic conditions would dramatically alter ecosystem services. Uncertainty about responses is highest at the pelagic-littoral interface, in regard to whether an extremely shallow lake could support submerged vascular plants, which are critical to the recreational fishery and for migratory birds. Along with improved regional climate modeling, research in that interface zone is needed to guide the adaptive process of Everglades restoration.

Plankton food web responses to experimental nutrient additions in a subtropical lake

During two controlled enclosure experiments using water from a subtropical lake, the plankton food web displayed a highly variable response to combined addition of nitrogen and phosphorus. In July, the nutrients stimulated growth of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, and the biomass of macrozooplankton and microbial food web components did not increase. In October, the same addition of nutrients stimulated growth of small edible Lyngbya spp., and there were coincident increases in biomass of macrozooplankton and components of the microbial web. Past generalizations that cyanobacteria blooms inhibit growth of other food web components may not always hold true.

A reevaluation of the cultural eutrophication of Lake Okeechobee using multiproxy sediment records

Lake Okeechobee, the hydrological lynchpin of the Everglades ecosystem, is the subject of an ambitious, multiagency restoration effort aimed at reducing phosphorus inputs and resulting algal blooms and impaired water clarity. This restoration is predicated on returning the lake to something closer to its predisturbance condition, but that goal has been challenged on the premise that the lake has always been eutrophic. The resolution of this debate and the appropriateness of the nutrient reduction goals thus depend on obtaining a reliable sediment record of past limnological conditions--the aim of this study. Because of the potential for severe sediment mixing from tropical storms, this investigation used multiple dating tools to examine the integrity of the sediment record and then analyzed proxies for nutrient enrichment, phytoplankton composition, and paleoproductivity. Sediment profiles for atmospheric pollutants, fertilizer contaminants, and radiocesium from three widely spaced cores showed good preservation of stratigraphic detail and coherence with the 210Pb chronologies. These results demonstrated that sediment stratigraphy is largely intact and retains a reliable record of limnological change. Geochemical proxies provide strong evidence of increased nutrient loading beginning ca. 1950. Concentrations of sediment P double, and N:P and C:N ratios drop, while those for N isotopes (delta15N) increase. At the same time, tracers of phosphate fertilizers (uranium, vanadium, and arsenic) rise. These changes are synchronous among cores and constitute a robust, internally consistent record of increasing water-column P. Biotic responses are manifested in higher concentrations and in changing composition of fossil algal pigments, including (1) large increases in the concentrations of chemically robust carotenoids, (2) corresponding decreases in the ratios of pigments from diatoms to chlorophyte and cyanobacterial algae, and (3) increases in UVR-photo-protective compounds indicating greater prevalence of surface algal blooms. This study provides strong evidence that Lake Okeechobee has experienced accelerated eutrophication linked with post-1950s land use changes in its watershed, a conclusion consistent with the nutrient reduction goals of the Lake Okeechobee Protection Program. The results contradict recent claims that the lake's trophic state has not changed over time, as well as the assertion that sediments of large shallow lakes cannot support a reliable chronology of past events.

Stable isotope food web analysis of a large subtropical lake: alternative explanations for 15N enrichment of pelagic vs. littoral fisheries

The food webs of littoral, pelagic, and littoral-pelagic ecotone (interface) regions of a large subtropical lake were investigated using stable isotope ratio methods, expanding the focus of a previous fish-only study to include other food web components such as primary producers and invertebrates. In these food webs, delta13C increased approximately 4 per thousand and delta15N increased approximately 10 per thousand from primary producers to fish. The delta15N of fish was approximately 9 per thousand in the littoral zone, approximately 10 per thousand in the ecotone, and approximately 12 per thousand in the pelagic zone. The cross-habitat enrichment in fish 15N corresponded with both an increase in the size of fish and an increase in the d15N of primary consumers (mollusks). Despite larger body size in the pelagic zone, fish in all three habitats appear to occur at the same average trophic level (TL = 4), assuming an enrichment factor of 3.4 per thousand per trophic level, and normalizing to the delta15N of primary consumers.

N:P ratios, light limitation, and cyanobacterial dominance in a subtropical lake impacted by non-point source nutrient pollution

A long-term (28-year) data set was used to investigate historical changes in concentrations of phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N), N:P ratios, and Secchi disk transparency in a shallow subtropical lake (Lake Okeechobee, Florida, USA). The aim was to evaluate changes in the risk of N2-fixing cyanobacterial blooms, which have infrequently occurred in the lake's pelagic zone. Predictions regarding bloom risk were based on previously published N:P ratio models. Temporal trends in the biomass of cyanobacteria were evaluated using phytoplankton data collected in 1974, 1989-1992, and 1997-2000. Concentrations of pelagic total P increased from near 50 microg l-1 in the mid-1970s to over 100 microg l-1 in the late 1990s. Coincidentally, the total N:P (mass) ratio decreased from 30:1 to below 15:1, and soluble N:P ratio decreased from 15:1 to near 6:1, in the lake water. Published empirical models predict that current conditions favor cyanobacteria. The observations confirm this prediction: cyanobacteria presently account for 50-80% of total phytoplankton biovolume. The historical decrease in TN:TP ratio in the lake can be attributed to a decreased TN:TP ratio in the inflow water and to a decline in the lake's assimilation of P, relative to N. Coincident with these declines in total and soluble N:P ratios, Secchi disk transparency declined from 0.6 m to near 0.3 m, possibly due to increased mineral turbidity in the lake water. Empirical models predict that under the turbid, low irradiance conditions that prevail in this lake, non-heterocystous cyanobacteria should dominate the phytoplankton. Our observations confirmed this prediction: non-N2-fixing taxa (primarily Oscillatoria and Lyngbya spp.) typically dominated the cyanobacteria community during the last decade. The only exception was a year with very low water levels, when heterocystous N2-fixing Anabaena became dominant. In the near-shore regions of this shallow lake, low N:P ratios potentially favor blooms of N2-fixing cyanobacteria, but their occurrence in the pelagic zone is restricted by low irradiance and lack of stable stratification.

Large-scale mapping and predictive modeling of submerged aquatic vegetation in a shallow eutrophic lake

A spatially intensive sampling program was developed for mapping the submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) over an area of approximately 20,000 ha in a large, shallow lake in Florida, U.S. The sampling program integrates Geographic Information System (GIS) technology with traditional field sampling of SAV and has the capability of producing robust vegetation maps under a wide range of conditions, including high turbidity, variable depth (0 to 2 m), and variable sediment types. Based on sampling carried out in August-September 2000, we measured 1,050 to 4,300 ha of vascular SAV species and approximately 14,000 ha of the macroalga Chara spp. The results were similar to those reported in the early 1990s, when the last large-scale SAV sampling occurred. Occurrence of Chara was strongly associated with peat sediments, and maximal depths of occurrence varied between sediment types (mud, sand, rock, and peat). A simple model of Chara occurrence, based only on water depth, had an accuracy of 55%. It predicted occurrence of Chara over large areas where the plant actually was not found. A model based on sediment type and depth had an accuracy of 75% and produced a spatial map very similar to that based on observations. While this approach needs to be validated with independent data in order to test its general utility, we believe it may have application elsewhere. The simple modeling approach could serve as a coarse-scale tool for evaluating effects of water level management on Chara populations.

Zooplankton structure and potential food web interactions in the plankton of a subtropical chain-of-lakes

This study evaluates the taxonomic and size structure of macro-zooplankton and its potential role in controlling phytoplankton in the Kissimmee Chain-of-Lakes, six shallow interconnected lakes in Florida, U.S. Macro-zooplankton species biomass and standard limnological attributes (temperature, pH, total phosphorus [TP], chlorophyll a [Chl a], and Secchi transparency) were quantified on a bimonthly basis from April 1997 to February 1999. Concentrations of TP ranged from below 50 to over 150 microg l(-1). Peak concentrations of particulate P coincided with maximal Chl a, and in one instance a high concentration of soluble reactive P followed. The cladoceran zooplankton was dominated by small species, including Eubosmina tubicen, Ceriodaphnia rigaudi, and Daphnia ambigua. The exotic daphnid, D. lumholtzii, periodically was abundant. The copepods were strongly dominated by Diaptomus dorsalis, a species previously shown to be highly resistant to fish predation. These results, and findings of controlled experiments on a nearby lake with a nearly identical zooplankton species complement, suggest that fish predation may be a major factor structuring the macro-zooplankton assemblage. Zooplankton biomass, on the other hand, may be affected by resource availability. There was a significant positive relationship between average biomass of macro-zooplankton and the average concentration of TP among the six lakes. No such relationship existed between zooplankton biomass and Chl a, suggesting that the predominant food web in these systems may be based on bacteria-plankton, as has been documented in nearby Lake Okeechobee. All of the zooplankton taxa encountered in the Kissimmee Chain-of-Lakes (except Mesocyclops edax) are known bacteria grazers in Florida lakes. Phytoplankton biomass, measured as Chl a, was strongly associated with TP, both within and across lakes. Phytoplankton biomass was not associated with the biomass of zooplankton. These results, when considered in the context of nutrient-addition, zooplankton-exclosure studies on Lake Okeechobee, support the hypothesis that phytoplankton biomass in subtropical lakes is regulated by "bottom-up," rather than "top-down" forces.

The International Editorship of Freshwater Systems

It is my pleasure to announce that two distinguished internationalscientists have joined the editorship of the FreshwaterSystems domain of TheScientificWorldJOURNAL — Professor BrijGopal of Jawaharlal Nehru University (India) and Dr. Manual Graça of the Universityof Coimbra (Portugal). Professor Gopal is the Secretary General of the NationalInstitute of Ecology, Editor of the InternationalJournal of Ecology & Environmental Science,and Chairman of the SIL (International Association of Theoretical and AppliedLimnology) Committee on Limnology in Developing Countries. His research interestsinclude the ecology, biogeochemistry and biodiversity of wetland ecosystems,the management of wetlands as an integral part of the watershed, and wetlandwater policy–related issues. Dr. Graça is a stream ecologist whose researchinterests include the two general areas of organic matter decomposition andbiological monitoring. His specific areas of research focus include quantificationof organic matter and other chemical changes in decomposing leaves, the ecologyof aquatic hyphomycetes, and the ecology of animals feeding on detritus. Hisresearch dealing with biological monitoring is carried out in close cooperationwith the paper and mining industries, facilitating the practical applicationof his work.

Hurricane effects on a shallow lake ecosystem and its response to a controlled manipulation of water level

In order to reverse the damage to aquatic plant communities caused by multiple years of high water levels in Lake Okeechobee, Florida (U.S.), the Governing Board of the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) authorized a "managed recession" to substantially lower the surface elevation of the lake in spring 2000. The operation was intended to achieve lower water levels for at least 8 weeks during the summer growing season, and was predicted to result in a large-scale recovery of submerged vascular plants. We treated this operation as a whole ecosystem experiment, and assessed ecological responses using data from an existing network of water quality and submerged plant monitoring sites. As a result of large-scale discharges of water from the lake, coupled with losses to evaporation and to water supply deliveries to agriculture and other regional users, the lake surface elevation receded by approximately 1 m between April and June. Water depths in shoreline areas that historically supported submerged plant communities declined from near 1.5 m to below 0.5 m. Low water levels persisted for the entire summer. Despite shallow depths, the initial response (in June 2000) of submerged plants was very limited and water remained highly turbid (due at first to abiotic seston and later to phytoplankton blooms). Turbidity decreased in July and the biomass of plants increased. However, submerged plant biomass did not exceed levels observed during summer 1999 (when water depths were greater) until August. Furthermore, a vascular plant-dominated assemblage (Vallisneria, Potamogeton, and Hydrilla) that occurred in 1999 was replaced with a community of nearly 98% Chara spp. (a macro-alga) in 2000. Hence, the lake"s submerged plant community appeared to revert to an earlier successional stage despite what appeared to be better conditions for growth. To explain this unexpected response, we evaluated the impacts that Hurricane Irene may have had on the lake in the previous autumn. In mid-October 1999, this category 1 hurricane passed just to the south of the lake, with wind velocities over the lake surface reaching 90 km h(-1) at their peak. Output from a three-dimensional hydrodynamic/sediment transport model indicates that during the storm, current velocities in surface waters of the lake increased from near 5 cm s(-1) to as high as 100 cm s(-1). These strong velocities were associated with large-scale uplifting and horizontal transport of fine- grained sediments from the lake bottom. Water quality data collected after the storm confirmed that the hurricane resulted in lake-wide nutrient and suspended solids concentrations far in excess of those previously documented for a 10-year data set. These conditions persisted through the winter months and may have negatively impacted plants that remained in the lake at the end of the 1999 growing season. The results demonstrate that in shallow lakes, unpredictable external forces, such as hurricanes, can play a major role in ecosystem dynamics. In regions where these events are common (e.g., the tropics and subtropics), consideration should be given to how they might affect long-term lake management programs.

Welcome to Freshwater Systems, A Domain of TheScientificWorld

With an ever-increasing human population size, increasing human impacts on the natural environment, and a growing scarcity of freshwater resources, the study of freshwater systems has become one of the most critical areas of focus for environmental scientists. Never before has there been such a need for an integrated understanding of lakes, wetlands, and flowing waters. This understanding must cross the boundaries of traditional disciplines, reach a wide international audience, and strongly facilitate the linkage between scientific discovery and its real-world application.

Modeling water resources: have we got it right?

Aquatic scientists generally recognize that controlled experiments are required to establish cause-effect relationships (e.g., Havens and Aumen, 2000), and understanding ecological processes is key to accurately predicting complex ecosystem responses. However, resource managers may have at their disposal only a limited amount of observational data when faced with management decisions. Hence, there may be a tendency to use simple empirical models for decision making. An example of eutrophication management in lakes illustrates a pitfall of this approach when used independently of other scientific information.

Complex analyses of plankton structure and function

This paper critically evaluates some complex methods that have been used to characterize the structure and function of freshwater plankton communities. The focus is on methods related to plankton size structure and carbon transfer. The specific methods reviewed are 1) size spectrum analysis, 2) size-fractionated phytoplankton productivity, 3) size-fractionated zooplankton grazing, 4) plankton ecological transfer efficiency, and 5) grazer effects on phytoplankton community structure. Taken together, these methods can provide information on community ecological properties that are directly related to practical issues including water quality and fisheries productivity. However, caution is warranted since application without a complete understanding of assumptions and context of the manipulations could lead to erroneous conclusions. As an example, experimental studies involving the addition or removal of zooplankton, especially when coupled with nutrient addition treatments, could provide information on the degree of consumer vs. resource control of phytoplankton. Resource managers subsequently could use this information in developing effective measures for controlling nuisance algal biomass. However, the experiments must be done critically and with sufficient safeguards and other measurements to ensure that treatments (e.g., zooplankton exclosure by screening of water) actually are successful and do not introduce other changes in the community (e.g., removal of large algae). In all of the methods described here, the investigator must take care when generalizing results and, in particular, carry out a sufficient number of replications to encompass both the major seasonal and spatial variation that occurs in the ecosystem.

Complex interactions between autotrophs in shallow marine and freshwater ecosystems: implications for community responses to nutrient stress

The relative biomass of autotrophs (vascular plants, macroalgae, microphytobenthos, phytoplankton) in shallow aquatic ecosystems is thought to be controlled by nutrient inputs and underwater irradiance. Widely accepted conceptual models indicate that this is the case both in marine and freshwater systems. In this paper we examine four case studies and test whether these models generally apply. We also identify other complex interactions among the autotrophs that may influence ecosystem response to cultural eutrophication. The marine case studies focus on macroalgae and its interactions with sediments and vascular plants. The freshwater case studies focus on interactions between phytoplankton, epiphyton, and benthic microalgae. In Waquoit Bay, MA (estuary), controlled experiments documented that blooms of macroalgae were responsible for the loss of eelgrass beds at nutrient-enriched locations. Macroalgae covered eelgrass and reduced irradiance to the extent that the plants could not maintain net growth. In Hog Island Bay, VA (estuary), a dense lawn of macroalgae covered the bottom sediments. There was reduced sediment-water nitrogen exchange when the algae were actively growing and high nitrogen release during algal senescence. In Lakes Brobo (West Africa) and Okeechobee (FL), there were dramatic seasonal changes in the biomass and phosphorus content of planktonic versus attached algae, and these changes were coupled with changes in water level and abiotic turbidity. Deeper water and/or greater turbidity favored dominance by phytoplankton. In Lake Brobo there also was evidence that phytoplankton growth was stimulated following a die-off of vascular plants. The case studies from Waquoit Bay and Lake Okeechobee support conceptual models of succession from vascular plants to benthic algae to phytoplankton along gradients of increasing nutrients and decreasing under-water irradiance. The case studies from Hog Island Bay and Lake Brobo illustrate additional effects (modified sediment-water nutrient fluxes, allelopathy or nutrient release during plant senescence) that could play a role in ecosystem response to nutrient stress.

The importance of considering biological processes when setting total maximum daily loads (TMDL) for phosphorus in shallow lakes and reservoirs

Total maximum daily loads (TMDL) are required by the US Environmental Protection Agency for pollutants that have impaired the designated uses of surface waters in the nation. Setting an appropriate TMDL requires quantitative information on both the external pollutant inputs and the processes affecting pollutant dynamics within the ecosystem. Here we focus on phosphorus (P), a globally important pollutant of freshwater lakes. We consider how biological processes (including those related to algae, plants, invertebrates and fish) can influence the ability of lakes to assimilate P, and in turn the ability of managers to select appropriate TMDLs. The primary focus is on shallow eutrophic lakes, with Lake Okeechobee (Florida, USA) serving as a case study. The paper deals only with in-lake processes as they relate to setting the TMDL and not the subsequent issue of load allocation among pollution sources. The results indicate that the ability of a shallow lake to assimilate P is substantially reduced when surplus levels of P occur in the water column, the phytoplankton becomes dominated by cyanobacteria, the benthic invertebrate community becomes dominated by oligochaetes, and submerged plant biomass is low. If some of these biological changes can be reversed in a rehabilitation program then the lake may be able to support a higher TMDL.

Nutrient dynamics and the eutrophication of shallow lakes Kasumigaura (Japan), Donghu (PR China), and Okeechobee (USA)

We compared the nutrient dynamics of three lakes that have been heavily influenced by point and non-point source pollution and other human activities. The lakes, located in Japan (Lake Kasumigaura), People's Republic of China (Lake Donghu), and the USA (Lake Okeechobee), all are relatively large (> 30 km2), very shallow (< 4 m mean depth), and eutrophic. In all three lakes we found strong interactions among the sediments, water column, and human activities. Important processes affecting nutrient dynamics included nitrogen fixation, light limitation due to resuspended sediments, and intense grazing on algae by cultured fish. As a result of these complex interactions, simple empirical models developed to predict in-lake responses of total phosphorus and algal biomass to external nutrient loads must be used with caution. While published models may provide 'good' results, in terms of model output matching actual data, this may not be due to accurate representation of lake processes in the models. The variable nutrient dynamics that we observed among the three study lakes appears to be typical for shallow lake systems. This indicates that a greater reliance on lake-specific research may be required for effective management, and a lesser role of inter-lake generalization than is possible for deeper, dimictic lake systems. Furthermore, accurate predictions of management impacts in shallow eutrophic lakes may require the use of relatively complex deterministic modeling tools.

FORUM: Hypothesis-Driven Experimental Research Is Necessary for Natural Resource Management

/ Effective management of natural resources must be grounded in a solid scientific understanding of the ecosystem and its responses to natural and human-induced stress. Such an understanding does not arise easily from observational data and models that are not substantiated by experimental data. Cause-and-effect relationships are more easily documented when observations and/or models are supplemented by hypothesis-driven experimental research. In this paper we present three examples from south Florida where hypothesis-driven experimental research has been combined with observational data collection to address specific resource management questions. These include research to determine: (1) the cause of cattail expansion in the Everglades; (2) a threshold phosphorus concentration for the Everglades; and (3) optimal salinity criteria for Florida estuaries. In each case, the results have led to a better understanding of ecosystem function and more sound guidance for resource managers than was possible without the hypothesis-drive experimental research. Resource managers need to recognize the merits of this holistic approach to environmental science and management if we are to have success in reversing detrimental human impacts on natural ecosystems.

Results of a Program to Control Phosphorus Discharges from Dairy Operations in South-Central Florida, USA

During 1987-1992, a mandatory program to control phosphorus discharges was implemented at dairy operations located to the north of Lake Okeechobee, Florida, USA. Thirty of 48 dairies participated in this program and implemented best management practices (BMPs), which included the construction of intensive animal waste management systems. Eighteen dairies closed their milk-producing operations under a government-funded buyout program. In this paper, we compare trends in runoff total phosphorus (TP) concentrations among the dairies that remained active and implemented BMPs. A central feature of the dairy waste management system is the high intensity area (HIA), defined as the milking barn and adjacent vegetation-free land, encircled by a drainage ditch and dike. Animal waste from the HIA is diverted into anaerobic lagoons and storage ponds, from which water is periodically removed and used for irrigation of field crops. The impacts of BMP construction on runoff TP concentrations were immediate and, in most cases, dramatic. Average TP concentrations declined significantly (P<0.001), from 9.0 to 1.2 mg TP liter-1 at dairies in one basin (Lower Kissimmee River), and from 2.6 to 1.0 mg TP liter-1 in another (Taylor Creek/Nubbin Slough). Some sites experienced greater declines in TP than others. To elucidate possible causes for the difference in response, a multivariate statistical model was utilized. Independent variables included soil pH, soil drainage characteristics, spodic horizon depth, and the areas of different BMP components (pasture, HIA, spray fields). The analysis significantly separated dairies with the highest and lowest runoff TP concentrations. Lowest TP occurred at dairies having particular soil characteristic (shallow spodic horizon) and certain BMP features (large HIA and small heard pastures).

Secondary nitrogen limitation in a subtropical lake impacted by non-point source agricultural pollution

A 20-year history of nutrient limitation was quantified for Lake Okeechobee, a nutrient-impacted lake in Florida, USA. Limiting status (nitrogen versus phosphorus) was estimated from deviations between trophic state index (TSI) parameters, calculated from routine monitoring data. The lake is presently nitrogen-limited. However, historical trends in the TSI deviations indicate that contemporary nitrogen limitation is a secondary, unnatural condition that has arisen due to excessive phosphorus loading. Prior to 1980, there was evidence of lake-wide limitation by phosphorus, rather than nitrogen. The finding of secondary nitrogen limitation in Lake Okeechobee has important management implications. Phosphorus loads are presently being reduced in order to reduce in-lake concentrations and create phosphorus-limited conditions (nitrogen limitation is undersirable because it has favored bloom-forming cyanobacteria). The present results indicate that this long-term management goal is ecologically sound; it is consistent with the concept of restoration of the lake.

Structural and functional responses of a freshwater plankton community to acute copper stress

An in-situ experiment was performed to quantify the impacts of copper sulfate on plankton structure and carbon dynamics. Plankton were exposed to 140 microg litre(-1) copper in quadruplicate mesocosms. Community structure was monitored for 14 days by microscopical counts and compared with untreated controls. Carbon dynamics were assessed by tracer studies using (14)C bicarbonate and (14)C glucose, to follow the fate of carbon in the algal- and bacterial-based pathways, respectively. Copper reduced the dry-weight biomass of zooplankton, ciliates, flagellates, and autotrophic phytoplankton. Bacterial biomass was increased by an order of magnitude relative to the controls. The bacterial response was most likely due to reduced grazing pressure and/or nutrient release from dying plankton. Copper reduced the effectiveness of the food web in transporting carbon to the surviving zooplankton. Bacterial-based pathways were more greatly affected than algal-based pathways, because zooplankton in the copper treatment were macro-grazers (cyclopoids), which cannot utilize bacteria.

An experimental comparison of the effects of two chemical stressors on a freshwater zooplankton assemblage

Mesocosms in an Ohio, USA lake were dosed with ten levels (0-100 microg liter(-1)) of copper (experiment 1) or Carbaryl (experiment 2). Zooplankton responses were determined after 4-day incubations. Species level responses differed for the two chemicals; community level responses were very similar. Across the gradients of increasing Cu or Carbaryl doses, cladocerans were greatly reduced and copepods became dominant. For Carbaryl, the response was consistent with that reported previously. For Cu, different responses were previously observed at other lakes. The taxonomic composition of the zooplankton may largely determine the community level response. In the present experiments, cladoceran declines may have secondarily affected food web function. In the Carbaryl experiment, where the chemical did not directly suppress algae, their biomass increased with dose level. This coincided with the cladoceran decline, suggesting an algal response to reduced top-down control.

Zooplankton community responses to chemical stressors: a comparison of results from acidification and pesticide contamination research

The response of freshwater zooplankton communities to two chemical stressors, acidification and pesticide contamination, were investigated in a review of published research results. The objective was to test Odum's predictions (Odum, 1985) that in response to stress, both the average body size of organisms and their efficiency in utilizing resources are reduced. Acidification and pesticide contamination were both found to favor dominance by small cladorecans and rotifers, the smallest zooplankton taxa. This finding was consistent with Odum's predictions, however, there were exceptions to the trend. The dominance of small taxa may be due to rapid reproductive rates, physiological tolerance, development with few transitions through sensitive stages (eg. post-molting), or to the great richness of small species. Regardless of the mechanism, there is evidence that when acidification and pesticide contamination result in small zooplankton dominance, the efficiency of carbon and energy transfer from algae to zooplankton is reduced. This finding is also consistent with Odum's predictions.

Acid and aluminum effects on the survival of littoral macro-invertebrates during acute bioassays

Six common macro-invertebrates were exposed to soft water at pH 4.5, with or without 200 microg liter(-1) Al added. Survivals were determined at 6, 12, 24 and 48 h and compared with neutral pH, Al-free controls. The order of acid-sensitivity among the test animals, from greatest to least (with mean 24/48 h survivals in the pH 4.5, low Al treatment in parentheses), was: Caenis sp. (2%) > Hyalella azteca (12%) > Enallagma sp. (20%) > Gyraulus sp. (55%) > Chironomidae (94%) > Hydracarina (99%). Aluminum significantly reduced the survivals of Gyraulus, Hyalella and Chironomidae. The latter group experienced no significant mortality at pH 4.5 except when Al was present. In contrast, the Hydracarina were unaffected by both acid and acid plus Al exposure, and the survivals of Enallagma and Caenis at low pH were enhanced by Al. These differential responses to the treatments indicate that both acid and Al stress may control the structure of the littoral macroinvertebrate community in acid lakes.

Littoral zooplankton responses to acid and aluminum stress during short-term laboratory bioassays

During autumn 1990, littoral zooplankton were collected from three alkaline lakes in Ohio, USA. Toxicity tests were performed, in which animals were placed into treatments of pH 4.5, with or without 500 microg litre(-1) Al added. Percentage survival after 24 h was determined for each test species, and compared to survival in controls (pH roughly 8.0). Three distinct responses were observed: (1) Four cladocerans, Simocephalus serrulatus, Diaphanosoma birgii, Acantholeberis curvirostris and Chydorus sphaericus, were tolerant of both acid and Al, with no significant reductions in survival in the treatments. (2) The cladoceran Eurycercus lamellatus and the capepod Acanthocyclops vernalis were sensitive to both acid and Al, and suffered 100% mortality in both treatments. (3) The cladocerans Camptocercus rectirostris, Alona costata and Pleuroxus denticulatus, and the copopod Mesocyclops edax showed decreased survival in the acid treatment, and a significantly greater decrease in the acid plus Al treatment. For nine of the ten test species, the results were consistent with previous survey and paleolimnological studies. The results indicate that direct toxic effects of H+ and Al ions largely determine the responses of these common littoral species to acidification.

Aluminum binding to ion exchange sites in acid-sensitive versus acid-tolerant cladocerans

Two acid-sensitive cladocerans, Daphnia galeata mendotae and D. retrocurva, and one acid-tolerant one, Bosmina longirostris, were exposed for 24 h to pH 5.0 and 200 microg liter(-1) total Al. The entire procedure was replicated on three dates in summer 1989. Mortality rates were determined, and the extent of Al binding to ion exchange sites determined using hematoxylin staining. Both daphnids consistently experienced near 100% mortalities, while mortalities for B. longirostris were always near zero. The daphnids showed marked Al binding at the maxillary glands, the site of ion exchange, while B. longirostris showed no noticeable Al binding.

Phytoplankton succession during acidification with and without increasing aluminum levels

An in situ mesocosm experiment was performed to investigate the role of aluminum in controlling phytoplankton community succession during lake acidification. Large (2000 liter) mesocosms were suspended in mesotrophic East Twin Lake, Ohio, USA. Duplicates were either untreated controls (pH 8.8), acidified to pH 4.5 over 23 days, or acidified and spiked with 200 microg/liter Al in incremental additions. Filamentous blue greens, diatoms and other chrysophytes became extinct in both acid treatments, but declined most rapidly where Al levels were also increased. The large desmid Closterium and the filamentous chlorophyte Mougoetia became dominant in the Acid treatment. In the Acid + Al treatment, these algae also became dominant, but the species with greatest biomass was the dinoflagellate Peridinium inconspicuum. Acidification (with or without added Al) also resulted in a significant shift in the algal size spectrum to larger (> 20 microm) cells.

Acid and aluminum effects on freshwater zooplankton: an in situ Mesocosm study

An in situ mesocosm experiment was performed to evaluate the role of aluminum toxicity in determining zooplankton community responses to take acidification. Large plastic enclosures were suspended in East Twin Lake, Ohio, USA, and duplicates were either untreated controls (pH 8.8), acidified to pH 4.5 over a 23 day period, or acidified and also spiked with incremental additions of Al, to produce a final inorganic monomeric Al level of 180 microg/liter at pH 4.5. Zooplankton abundance and species richness declined in both acid treatments, relative to the control, as numerous acid-sensitive species were eliminated. All of the acid-sensitive species were also Al-sensitive, declining in abundance more rapidly in the acid plus Al treatment than in the acid-alone treatment. Only two small cladocerans (Bosmina longirostris and Chydorus sphaericus) were acid tolerant. Both were also tolerant of elevated Al levels.