Structural Biology of the Immune Checkpoint Receptor PD-1 and Its Ligands PD-L1/PD-L2

Cancer cells can avoid and suppress immune responses through activation of inhibitory immune checkpoint proteins, such as PD-1, PD-L1, and CTLA-4. Blocking the activities of these proteins with monoclonal antibodies, and thus restoring T cell function, has delivered breakthrough therapies against cancer. In this review, we describe the latest work on structural characterization of the checkpoint proteins, their interactions with cognate ligands and with therapeutic antibodies. Structures of the extracellular portions of these proteins reveal that they all have a similar modular structure, composed of small domains similar in topology to the domains found in antibodies. Structural basis for blocking the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction by small molecules is illustrated with the compound BMS-202 that binds to and induces dimerization of PD-L1.

Small-molecule inhibitors of PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint alleviate the PD-L1-induced exhaustion of T-cells

Antibodies targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint achieved spectacular success in anticancer therapy in the recent years. In contrast, no small molecules with cellular activity have been reported so far. Here we provide evidence that small molecules are capable of alleviating the PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint-mediated exhaustion of Jurkat T-lymphocytes. The two optimized small-molecule inhibitors of the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction, BMS-1001 and BMS-1166, developed by Bristol-Myers Squibb, bind to human PD-L1 and block its interaction with PD-1, when tested on isolated proteins. The compounds present low toxicity towards tested cell lines and block the interaction of soluble PD-L1 with the cell surface-expressed PD-1. As a result, BMS-1001 and BMS-1166 alleviate the inhibitory effect of the soluble PD-L1 on the T-cell receptor-mediated activation of T-lymphocytes. Moreover, the compounds were effective in attenuating the inhibitory effect of the cell surface-associated PD-L1. We also determined the X-ray structures of the complexes of BMS-1001 and BMS-1166 with PD-L1, which revealed features that may be responsible for increased potency of the compounds compared to their predecessors. Further development may lead to the design of an anticancer therapy based on the orally delivered immune checkpoint inhibition.

Small-Molecule Inhibitors of the Programmed Cell Death-1/Programmed Death-Ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) Interaction via Transiently Induced Protein States and Dimerization of PD-L1

Blockade of the PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint pathway with monoclonal antibodies has provided significant advances in cancer treatment. The antibody-based immunotherapies carry a number of disadvantages such as the high cost of the antibodies, their limited half-life, and immunogenicity. Development of small-molecule PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors that could overcome these drawbacks is slow because of the incomplete structural information for this pathway. The first chemical PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors have been recently disclosed by Bristol-Myers Squibb. Here we present NMR and X-ray characterization for the two classes of these inhibitors. The X-ray structures of the PD-L1/inhibitor complexes reveal one inhibitor molecule located at the center of the PD-L1 homodimer, filling a deep hydrophobic channel-like pocket between two PD-L1 molecules. Derivatives of (2-methyl-3-biphenylyl)methanol exhibit the structures capped on one side of the channel, whereas the compounds based on [3-(2,3-dihydro-1,4-benzodioxin-6-yl)-2-methylphenyl]methanol induce an enlarged interaction interface that results in the open "face-back" tunnel through the PD-L1 dimer.

Lithocholic Acid Hydroxyamide Destabilizes Cyclin D1 and Induces G0/G1 Arrest by Inhibiting Deubiquitinase USP2a

USP2a is a deubiquitinase responsible for stabilization of cyclin D1, a crucial regulator of cell-cycle progression and a proto-oncoprotein overexpressed in numerous cancer types. Here we report that lithocholic acid (LCA) derivatives are inhibitors of USP proteins, including USP2a. The most potent LCA derivative, LCA hydroxyamide (LCAHA), inhibits USP2a, leading to a significant Akt/GSK3β-independent destabilization of cyclin D1, but does not change the expression of p27. This leads to the defects in cell-cycle progression. As a result, LCAHA inhibits the growth of cyclin D1-expressing, but not cyclin D1-negative cells, independently of the p53 status. We show that LCA derivatives may be considered as future therapeutics for the treatment of cyclin D1-addicted p53-expressing and p53-defective cancer types.

[Evaluation of anxiety and depression in patients with vascular brain damage]

In 90 patients with vascular damage to the CNS an assessment was carried out of the intensity of anxiety on the basis of Anxiety State and Trait Inventory, of the degree of symptom intensity of depression syndrome on the basis of Hamilton Depression Scale and of personality and socioeconomic conditions on the basis of history data in' and Eysenck Personality Inventory. In the studies the hemispheric laterality of brain damage was taken into account. The results were analysed statistically comparing them with those obtained in the control group of healthy men aged 18-24 years. On the basis of the studies and calculations the following conclusions were drawn: 1--the intensity of anxiety and depression in patients treated for vascular CNS damage is greater than in the control group. 2--statistically higher depression intensity was found in patients with left hemisphere damage as compared with the group with right hemisphere damage. 3--in patients living in good social conditions and regarding their family relations as good, the intensity of anxiety and depression was statistically lower than in the group of patients with poor family and socioeconomic conditions.