Differentiation granules, a dynamic regulator of T. brucei development

Adaptation to a change of environment is an essential process for survival, in particular for parasitic organisms exposed to a wide range of hosts. Such adaptations include rapid control of gene expression through the formation of membraneless organelles composed of poly-A RNA and proteins. The African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei is exquisitely sensitive to well-defined environmental stimuli that trigger cellular adaptations through differentiation events that characterise its complex life cycle. The parasite has been shown to form stress granules in vitro, and it has been proposed that such a stress response could have been repurposed to enable differentiation and facilitate parasite transmission. Therefore, we explored the composition and positional dynamics of membraneless granules formed in response to starvation stress and during differentiation in the mammalian host between the replicative slender and transmission-adapted stumpy forms. We find that T. brucei differentiation does not reflect the default response to environmental stress. Instead, the developmental response of the parasites involves a specific and programmed hierarchy of membraneless granule assembly, with distinct components and regulation by protein kinases such as TbDYRK, that are required for the parasite to successfully progress through its life cycle development and prepare for transmission.

Consistent detection of Trypanosoma brucei but not T. congolense DNA in faeces of experimentally infected cattle

Animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT) is a significant food security and economic burden in sub-Saharan Africa. Current AAT empirical and immunodiagnostic surveillance tools suffer from poor sensitivity and specificity, with blood sampling requiring animal restraint and trained personnel. Faecal sampling could increase sampling accessibility, scale, and species range. Therefore, this study assessed feasibility of detecting Trypanosoma DNA in the faeces of experimentally-infected cattle. Holstein-Friesian calves were inoculated with Trypanosoma brucei brucei AnTat 1.1 (n = 5) or T. congolense Savannah IL3000 (n = 6) in separate studies. Faecal and blood samples were collected concurrently over 10 weeks and screened using species-specific PCR and qPCR assays. T. brucei DNA was detected in 85% of post-inoculation (PI) faecal samples (n = 114/134) by qPCR and 50% by PCR between 4 and 66 days PI. However, T. congolense DNA was detected in just 3.4% (n = 5/145) of PI faecal samples by qPCR, and none by PCR. These results confirm the ability to consistently detect T. brucei DNA, but not T. congolense DNA, in infected cattle faeces. This disparity may derive from the differences in Trypanosoma species tissue distribution and/or extravasation. Therefore, whilst faeces are a promising substrate to screen for T. brucei infection, blood sampling is required to detect T. congolense in cattle.

A conserved trypanosomatid differentiation regulator controls substrate attachment and morphological development in Trypanosoma congolense

Trypanosomatid parasites undergo developmental regulation to adapt to the different environments encountered during their life cycle. In Trypanosoma brucei, a genome wide selectional screen previously identified a regulator of the protein family ESAG9, which is highly expressed in stumpy forms, a morphologically distinct bloodstream stage adapted for tsetse transmission. This regulator, TbREG9.1, has an orthologue in Trypanosoma congolense, despite the absence of a stumpy morphotype in that parasite species, which is an important cause of livestock trypanosomosis. RNAi mediated gene silencing of TcREG9.1 in Trypanosoma congolense caused a loss of attachment of the parasites to a surface substrate in vitro, a key feature of the biology of these parasites that is distinct from T. brucei. This detachment was phenocopied by treatment of the parasites with a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, which also promotes detachment in the insect trypanosomatid Crithidia fasciculata. RNAseq analysis revealed that TcREG9.1 silencing caused the upregulation of mRNAs for several classes of surface molecules, including transferrin receptor-like molecules, immunoreactive proteins in experimental bovine infections, and molecules related to those associated with stumpy development in T. brucei. Depletion of TcREG9.1 in vivo also generated an enhanced level of parasites in the blood circulation consistent with reduced parasite attachment to the microvasculature. The morphological progression to insect forms of the parasite was also perturbed. We propose a model whereby TcREG9.1 acts as a regulator of attachment and development, with detached parasites being adapted for transmission.

Pathogenicity and virulence of African trypanosomes: From laboratory models to clinically relevant hosts

African trypanosomes are vector-borne protozoa, which cause significant human and animal disease across sub-Saharan Africa, and animal disease across Asia and South America. In humans, infection is caused by variants of Trypanosoma brucei, and is characterized by varying rate of progression to neurological disease, caused by parasites exiting the vasculature and entering the brain. Animal disease is caused by multiple species of trypanosome, primarily T. congolense, T. vivax, and T. brucei. These trypanosomes also infect multiple species of mammalian host, and this complexity of trypanosome and host diversity is reflected in the spectrum of severity of disease in animal trypanosomiasis, ranging from hyperacute infections associated with mortality to long-term chronic infections, and is also a main reason why designing interventions for animal trypanosomiasis is so challenging. In this review, we will provide an overview of the current understanding of trypanosome determinants of infection progression and severity, covering laboratory models of disease, as well as human and livestock disease. We will also highlight gaps in knowledge and capabilities, which represent opportunities to both further our fundamental understanding of how trypanosomes cause disease, as well as facilitating the development of the novel interventions that are so badly needed to reduce the burden of disease caused by these important pathogens.

The developmental hierarchy and scarcity of replicative slender trypanosomes in blood challenges their role in infection maintenance

The development of Trypanosoma brucei in its mammalian host is marked by a distinct morphological change as replicative "slender" forms differentiate into cell cycle arrested "stumpy" forms in a quorum-sensing-dependent manner. Although stumpy forms dominate chronic infections at the population level, the proportion of replicative parasites at the individual cell level and the irreversibility of arrest in the bloodstream are unclear. Here, we experimentally demonstrate that developmental cell cycle arrest is definitively irreversible in acute and chronic infections in mice. Furthermore, analysis of replicative capacity and single-cell transcriptome profiling reveal a temporal hierarchy, whereby cell cycle arrest and appearance of a reversible stumpy-like transcriptome precede irreversible commitment and morphological change. Unexpectedly, we show that proliferating parasites are exceptionally scarce in the blood after infections are established. This challenges the ability of bloodstream trypanosomes to sustain infection by proliferation or antigenic variation, these parasites instead being overwhelmingly adapted for transmission.

Profiling the bloodstream form and procyclic form Trypanosoma brucei cell cycle using single-cell transcriptomics

African trypanosomes proliferate as bloodstream forms (BSFs) and procyclic forms in the mammal and tsetse fly midgut, respectively. This allows them to colonise the host environment upon infection and ensure life cycle progression. Yet, understanding of the mechanisms that regulate and drive the cell replication cycle of these forms is limited. Using single-cell transcriptomics on unsynchronised cell populations, we have obtained high resolution cell cycle regulated (CCR) transcriptomes of both procyclic and slender BSF Trypanosoma brucei without prior cell sorting or synchronisation. Additionally, we describe an efficient freeze-thawing protocol that allows single-cell transcriptomic analysis of cryopreserved T. brucei. Computational reconstruction of the cell cycle using periodic pseudotime inference allowed the dynamic expression patterns of cycling genes to be profiled for both life cycle forms. Comparative analyses identify a core cycling transcriptome highly conserved between forms, as well as several genes where transcript levels dynamics are form specific. Comparing transcript expression patterns with protein abundance revealed that the majority of genes with periodic cycling transcript and protein levels exhibit a relative delay between peak transcript and protein expression. This work reveals novel detail of the CCR transcriptomes of both forms, which are available for further interrogation via an interactive webtool.

Distinguishing functions of trypanosomatid protein kinases

Trypanosomatid parasitic protozoa are divergent from opisthokont models and have evolved unique mechanisms to regulate their complex life cycles and to adapt to a range of hosts. Understanding how these organisms respond, adapt, and persist in their different hosts could reveal optimal drug-control strategies. Protein kinases are fundamental to many biological processes such as cell cycle control, adaptation to stress, and cellular differentiation. Therefore, we have focused this review on the features and functions of protein kinases that distinguish trypanosomatid kinomes from other eukaryotes. We describe the latest research, highlighting similarities and differences between two groups of trypanosomatid parasites, Leishmania and African trypanosomes.

Extracellular release of two peptidases dominates generation of the trypanosome quorum-sensing signal

Trypanosomes causing African sleeping sickness use quorum-sensing (QS) to generate transmission-competent stumpy forms in mammalian hosts. This density-dependent process is signalled by oligopeptides that stimulate the signal transduction pathway leading to stumpy formation. Here, using mass spectrometry analysis, we identify peptidases released by trypanosomes and, for 12 peptidases, confirm their extracellular delivery. Thereafter, we determine the contribution of each peptidase to QS signal production using systematic inducible overexpression in vivo, and confirm this activity operates through the physiological QS signalling pathway. Gene knockout of the QS-active peptidases identifies two enzymes, oligopeptidase B and metallocarboxypeptidase 1, that significantly reduce QS when ablated individually. Further, combinatorial gene knockout of both peptidases confirms their dominance in the generation of the QS signal, with peptidase release of oligopeptidase B mediated via an unconventional protein secretion pathway. This work identifies how the QS signal driving trypanosome virulence and transmission is generated in mammalian hosts.

Comparative Sensitivity and Specificity of the 7SL sRNA Diagnostic Test for Animal Trypanosomiasis

Animal trypanosomiasis (AT) is a significant livestock disease, affecting millions of animals across Sub-Saharan Africa, Central and South America, and Asia, and is caused by the protozoan parasites Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma vivax, and Trypanosoma congolense, with the largest economic impact in cattle. There is over-reliance on presumptive chemotherapy due to inadequate existing diagnostic tests, highlighting the need for improved AT diagnostics. A small RNA species, the 7SL sRNA, is excreted/secreted by trypanosomes in infected animals, and has been previously shown to reliably diagnose active infection. We sought to explore key properties of 7SL sRNA RT-qPCR assays; namely, assessing the potential for cross-reaction with the widespread and benign Trypanosoma theileri, directly comparing assay performance against currently available diagnostic methods, quantitatively assessing specificity and sensitivity, and assessing the rate of decay of 7SL sRNA post-treatment. Results showed that the 7SL sRNA RT-qPCR assays specific for T. brucei, T. vivax, and T. congolense performed better than microscopy and DNA PCR in detecting infection. The 7SL sRNA signal was undetectable or significantly reduced by 96-h post treatment; at 1 × curative dose there was no detectable signal in 5/5 cattle infected with T. congolense, and in 3/5 cattle infected with T. vivax, with the signal being reduced 14,630-fold in the remaining two T. vivax cattle. Additionally, the assays did not cross-react with T. theileri. Finally, by using a large panel of validated infected and uninfected samples, the species-specific assays are shown to be highly sensitive and specific by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, with 100% sensitivity (95% CI, 96.44-100%) and 100% specificity (95% CI, 96.53-100%), 96.73% (95% CI, 95.54-99.96%) and 99.19% specificity (95% CI, 92.58-99.60%), and 93.42% (95% CI, 85.51-97.16% %) and 82.43% specificity (95% CI, 72.23-89.44% %) for the T brucei, T. congolense and T. vivax assays, respectively, under the conditions used. These findings indicate that the 7SL sRNA has many attributes that would be required for a potential diagnostic marker of AT: no cross-reaction with T. theileri, high specificity and sensitivity, early infection detection, continued signal even in the absence of detectable parasitaemia in blood, and clear discrimination between infected and treated animals.

The genomic basis of host and vector specificity in non-pathogenic trypanosomatids

Trypanosoma theileri, a non-pathogenic parasite of bovines, has a predicted surface protein architecture that likely aids survival in its mammalian host. Their surface proteins are encoded by genes which account for ∼10% of their genome. A non-pathogenic parasite of sheep, Trypanosoma melophagium, is transmitted by the sheep ked and is closely related to T. theileri. To explore host and vector specificity between these species, we sequenced the T. melophagium genome and transcriptome and an annotated draft genome was assembled. T. melophagium was compared to 43 kinetoplastid genomes, including T. theileri. T. melophagium and T. theileri have an AT biased genome, the greatest bias of publicly available trypanosomatids. This trend may result from selection acting to decrease the genomic nucleotide cost. The T. melophagium genome is 6.3Mb smaller than T. theileri and large families of proteins, characteristic of the predicted surface of T. theileri, were found to be absent or greatly reduced in T. melophagium. Instead, T. melophagium has modestly expanded protein families associated with the avoidance of complement-mediated lysis. We propose that the contrasting genomic features of these species is linked to their mode of transmission from their insect vector to their mammalian host. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Comment on 'Unexpected plasticity in the life cycle of Trypanosoma brucei'

Schuster et al. make the important observation that small numbers of trypanosomes can infect tsetse flies, and further argue that this can occur whether the infecting parasites are developmentally ‘slender’ or ‘stumpy’(Schuster et al., 2021). We welcome their careful experiments but disagree that they require a rethink of the trypanosome life-cycle. Instead, the study reveals that stumpy forms are more likely to successfully infect flies, the key limit on parasite transmission, and we predict this advantage would be greatly amplified in tsetse infections in the field. Further, we argue that stumpy forms are defined by a suite of molecular adaptations for life-cycle progression, with morphology being a secondary feature. Finally, their dominance in chronic infections means most natural tsetse infections would involve stumpy forms, even in small numbers. Our interpretation does not require re-evaluation of the obligatory life cycle of the parasite, where stumpy forms are selected to sustain transmission.

Parasite co-infection: an ecological, molecular and experimental perspective

Laboratory studies of pathogens aim to limit complexity in order to disentangle the important parameters contributing to an infection. However, pathogens rarely exist in isolation, and hosts may sustain co-infections with multiple disease agents. These interact with each other and with the host immune system dynamically, with disease outcomes affected by the composition of the community of infecting pathogens, their order of colonization, competition for niches and nutrients, and immune modulation. While pathogen-immune interactions have been detailed elsewhere, here we examine the use of ecological and experimental studies of trypanosome and malaria infections to discuss the interactions between pathogens in mammal hosts and arthropod vectors, including recently developed laboratory models for co-infection. The implications of pathogen co-infection for disease therapy are also discussed.

The SPARC complex defines RNAPII promoters in Trypanosoma brucei

Kinetoplastids are a highly divergent lineage of eukaryotes with unusual mechanisms for regulating gene expression. We previously surveyed 65 putative chromatin factors in the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei. Our analyses revealed that the predicted histone methyltransferase SET27 and the Chromodomain protein CRD1 are tightly concentrated at RNAPII transcription start regions (TSRs). Here, we report that SET27 and CRD1, together with four previously uncharacterized constituents, form the SET27 promoter-associated regulatory complex (SPARC), which is specifically enriched at TSRs. SET27 loss leads to aberrant RNAPII recruitment to promoter sites, accumulation of polyadenylated transcripts upstream of normal transcription start sites, and conversion of some normally unidirectional promoters to bidirectional promoters. Transcriptome analysis in the absence of SET27 revealed upregulated mRNA expression in the vicinity of SPARC peaks within the main body of chromosomes in addition to derepression of genes encoding variant surface glycoproteins (VSGs) located in subtelomeric regions. These analyses uncover a novel chromatin-associated complex required to establish accurate promoter position and directionality.

A systematic analysis of Trypanosoma brucei chromatin factors identifies novel protein interaction networks associated with sites of transcription initiation and termination

Nucleosomes composed of histones are the fundamental units around which DNA is wrapped to form chromatin. Transcriptionally active euchromatin or repressive heterochromatin is regulated in part by the addition or removal of histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) by "writer" and "eraser" enzymes, respectively. Nucleosomal PTMs are recognized by a variety of "reader" proteins that alter gene expression accordingly. The histone tails of the evolutionarily divergent eukaryotic parasite Trypanosoma brucei have atypical sequences and PTMs distinct from those often considered universally conserved. Here we identify 65 predicted readers, writers, and erasers of histone acetylation and methylation encoded in the T. brucei genome and, by epitope tagging, systemically localize 60 of them in the parasite's bloodstream form. ChIP-seq shows that 15 candidate proteins associate with regions of RNAPII transcription initiation. Eight other proteins show a distinct distribution with specific peaks at a subset of RNAPII transcription termination regions marked by RNAPIII-transcribed tRNA and snRNA genes. Proteomic analyses identify distinct protein interaction networks comprising known chromatin regulators and novel trypanosome-specific components. Notably, several SET- and Bromo-domain protein networks suggest parallels to RNAPII promoter-associated complexes in conventional eukaryotes. Further, we identify likely components of TbSWR1 and TbNuA4 complexes whose enrichment coincides with the SWR1-C exchange substrate H2A.Z at RNAPII transcription start regions. The systematic approach used provides details of the composition and organization of the chromatin regulatory machinery in T. brucei and establishes a route to explore divergence from eukaryotic norms in an evolutionarily ancient but experimentally accessible eukaryote.

Application of single-cell transcriptomics to kinetoplastid research

Kinetoplastid parasites are responsible for both human and animal diseases across the globe where they have a great impact on health and economic well-being. Many species and life cycle stages are difficult to study due to limitations in isolation and culture, as well as to their existence as heterogeneous populations in hosts and vectors. Single-cell transcriptomics (scRNA-seq) has the capacity to overcome many of these difficulties, and can be leveraged to disentangle heterogeneous populations, highlight genes crucial for propagation through the life cycle, and enable detailed analysis of host–parasite interactions. Here, we provide a review of studies that have applied scRNA-seq to protozoan parasites so far. In addition, we provide an overview of sample preparation and technology choice considerations when planning scRNA-seq experiments, as well as challenges faced when analysing the large amounts of data generated. Finally, we highlight areas of kinetoplastid research that could benefit from scRNA-seq technologies.

Monomorphic Trypanozoon: towards reconciling phylogeny and pathologies

Trypanosoma brucei evansi and T. brucei equiperdum are animal infective trypanosomes conventionally classified by their clinical disease presentation, mode of transmission, host range, kinetoplast DNA (kDNA) composition and geographical distribution. Unlike other members of the subgenus Trypanozoon, they are non-tsetse transmitted and predominantly morphologically uniform (monomorphic) in their mammalian host. Their classification as independent species or subspecies has been long debated and genomic studies have found that isolates within T. brucei evansi and T. brucei equiperdum have polyphyletic origins. Since current taxonomy does not fully acknowledge these polyphyletic relationships, we re-analysed publicly available genomic data to carefully define each clade of monomorphic trypanosome. This allowed us to identify, and account for, lineage-specific variation. We included a recently published isolate, IVM-t1, which was originally isolated from the genital mucosa of a horse with dourine and typed as T. equiperdum. Our analyses corroborate previous studies in identifying at least four distinct monomorphic T. brucei clades. We also found clear lineage-specific variation in the selection efficacy and heterozygosity of the monomorphic lineages, supporting their distinct evolutionary histories. The inferred evolutionary position of IVM-t1 suggests its reassignment to the T. brucei evansi type B clade, challenging the relationship between the Trypanozoon species, the infected host, mode of transmission and the associated pathological phenotype. The analysis of IVM-t1 also provides, to our knowledge, the first evidence of the expansion of T. brucei evansi type B, or a fifth monomorphic lineage represented by IVM-t1, outside of Africa, with important possible implications for disease diagnosis.

Trypanosome Signaling-Quorum Sensing

African trypanosomes are responsible for important diseases of humans and animals in sub-Saharan Africa. The best-studied species is Trypanosoma brucei, which is characterized by development in the mammalian host between morphologically slender and stumpy forms. The latter are adapted for transmission by the parasite's vector, the tsetse fly. The development of stumpy forms is driven by density-dependent quorum-sensing (QS), the molecular basis for which is now coming to light. In this review, I discuss the historical context and biological features of trypanosome QS and how it contributes to the parasite's infection dynamics within its mammalian host. Also, I discuss how QS can be lost in different trypanosome species, such as T. brucei evansi and T. brucei equiperdum, or modulated when parasites find themselves competing with others of different genotypes or of different trypanosome species in the same host. Finally, I consider the potential to exploit trypanosome QS therapeutically. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Microbiology, Volume 75 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Basement membrane proteins as a substrate for efficient Trypanosoma brucei differentiation in vitro

The ability to reproduce the developmental events of trypanosomes that occur in their mammalian host in vitro offers significant potential to assist in understanding of the underlying biology of the process. For example, the transition from bloodstream slender to bloodstream stumpy forms is a quorum-sensing response to the parasite-derived peptidase digestion products of environmental proteins. As an abundant physiological substrate in vivo, we studied the ability of a basement membrane matrix enriched gel (BME) in the culture medium to support differentiation of pleomorphic Trypanosoma brucei to stumpy forms. BME comprises extracellular matrix proteins, which are among the most abundant proteins found in connective tissues in mammals and known substrates of parasite-released peptidases. We previously showed that two of these released peptidases are involved in generating a signal that promotes slender-to-stumpy differentiation. Here, we tested the ability of basement membrane extract to enhance parasite differentiation through its provision of suitable substrates to generate the quorum sensing signal, namely oligopeptides. Our results show that when grown in the presence of BME, T. brucei pleomorphic cells arrest at the G0/1 phase of the cell cycle and express the differentiation marker PAD1, the response being restricted to differentiation-competent parasites. Further, the stumpy forms generated in BME medium are able to efficiently proceed onto the next life cycle stage in vitro, procyclic forms, when incubated with cis-aconitate, further validating the in vitro BME differentiation system. Hence, BME provides a suitable in vitro substrate able to accurately recapitulate physiological parasite differentiation without the use of experimental animals.

A global analysis of low-complexity regions in the Trypanosoma brucei proteome reveals enrichment in the C-terminus of nucleic acid binding proteins providing potential targets of phosphorylation

Background: Low-complexity regions (LCRs) on proteins have attracted increasing attention recently due to their role in the assembly of membraneless organelles or granules by liquid-liquid phase separation. Several examples of such granules have been shown to sequester RNA and proteins in an inactive state, providing an important mechanism for dynamic post-transcriptional gene regulation. In trypanosome parasites, post-transcriptional control overwhelmingly dominates gene regulation due to the organisation of their genome into polycistronic transcription units. The purpose of the current study was to generate a substantially more comprehensive genome-wide survey of LCRs on trypanosome proteins than currently available . Methods: Using the Shannon's entropy method, provided in the R package 'entropy', we identified LCRs in the proteome of Trypanosoma brucei. Our analysis predicts LCRs and their positional enrichment in distinct protein cohorts and superimposes on this a range of post-translational modifications derived from available experimental datasets. Results: We have identified 8162 LCRs present on 4914 proteins, representing 42% of the proteome, placing Trypanosoma brucei among the eukaryotes with the highest percentage of LCRs . Our results highlight the enrichment of LCRs in the C-terminal region of predicted nucleic acid binding proteins, these acting as favoured sites for potential phosphorylation. Phosphorylation represents 51% of the post-translational modifications present on LCRs compared to 16% on the rest of the proteome. Conclusions: The post-translational modifications of LCRs, and in particular phosphorylation events, could contribute to post-transcriptional gene expression control and the dynamics of protein targeting to membraneless organelles in kinetoplastid parasites.

A global analysis of low-complexity regions in the Trypanosoma brucei proteome reveals enrichment in the C-terminus of nucleic acid binding proteins providing potential targets of phosphorylation

Background: Low-complexity regions (LCRs) on proteins have attracted increasing attention recently due to their role in the assembly of membraneless organelles or granules by liquid-liquid phase separation. Several examples of such granules have been shown to sequester RNA and proteins in an inactive state, providing an important mechanism for dynamic post-transcriptional gene regulation. In trypanosome parasites, post-transcriptional control overwhelmingly dominates gene regulation due to the organisation of their genome into polycistronic transcription units. The purpose of the current study was to generate a substantially more comprehensive genome-wide survey of LCRs on trypanosome proteins than currently available . Methods: Using the Shannon's entropy method, provided in the R package 'entropy', we identified LCRs in the proteome of Trypanosoma brucei. Our analysis predicts LCRs and their positional enrichment in distinct protein cohorts and superimposes on this a range of post-translational modifications derived from available experimental datasets. Results: Our results highlight the enrichment of LCRs in the C-terminal region of predicted nucleic acid binding proteins, these acting as favoured sites for potential phosphorylation. Conclusions: The post-translational modifications of LCRs, and in particular the phosphorylation events, could contribute to post-transcriptional gene expression control and the dynamics of protein targeting to membraneless organelles in kinetoplastid parasites.

A Leap Into the Unknown - Early Events in African Trypanosome Transmission

African trypanosomes are mainly transmitted by tsetse flies. In recent years there has been good progress in understanding how the parasites prepare for transmission, detect their changed environment through the perception of different environmental cues, and respond by changing their developmental gene expression. In this review, we discuss the different signals and signaling mechanisms used by the parasites to carry out the early events necessary for their establishment in the fly. We also compare Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma congolense, parasites that share a common pathway in the early stages of fly colonization but apparently use different mechanisms to achieve this.

Quorum sensing in African trypanosomes

Many microbial eukaryotes exhibit cell-cell communication to co-ordinate group behaviours as a strategy to exploit a changed environment, adapt to adverse conditions or regulate developmental responses. Although best characterised in bacteria, eukaryotic microbes have also been revealed to cooperate to optimise their survival or dissemination. An excellent model for these processes are African trypanosomes, protozoa responsible for important human and animal disease in sub Saharan Africa. These unicellular parasites use density sensing in their mammalian host to prepare for transmission. Recently, the signal and signal transduction pathway underlying this activity have been elucidated, revealing that the parasite exploits oligopeptide signals generated by released peptidases to monitor cell density and so generate transmission stages. Here we review the evidence for this elegant quorum sensing mechanism and its parallels with similar mechanisms in other microbial systems. We also discuss its implications for disease spread in the context of coinfections involving different trypanosome species.

African trypanosomes

African trypanosomes cause human African trypanosomiasis and animal African trypanosomiasis. They are transmitted by tsetse flies in sub-Saharan Africa. Although most famous for their mechanisms of immune evasion by antigenic variation, there have been recent important studies that illuminate important aspects of the biology of these parasites both in their mammalian host and during passage through their tsetse fly vector. This Primer overviews current research themes focused on these parasites and discusses how these biological insights and the development of new technologies to interrogate gene function are being used in the search for new approaches to control the parasite. The new insights into the biology of trypanosomes in their host and vector highlight that we are in a ‘golden age’ of discovery for these fascinating parasites.

Oligopeptide Signaling through TbGPR89 Drives Trypanosome Quorum Sensing

Trypanosome parasites control their virulence and spread by using quorum sensing (QS) to generate transmissible “stumpy forms” in their host bloodstream. However, the QS signal “stumpy induction factor” (SIF) and its reception mechanism are unknown. Although trypanosomes lack G protein-coupled receptor signaling, we have identified a surface GPR89-family protein that regulates stumpy formation. TbGPR89 is expressed on bloodstream “slender form” trypanosomes, which receive the SIF signal, and when ectopically expressed, TbGPR89 drives stumpy formation in a SIF-pathway-dependent process. Structural modeling of TbGPR89 predicts unexpected similarity to oligopeptide transporters (POT), and when expressed in bacteria, TbGPR89 transports oligopeptides. Conversely, expression of an E. coli POT in trypanosomes drives parasite differentiation, and oligopeptides promote stumpy formation in vitro. Furthermore, the expression of secreted trypanosome oligopeptidases generates a paracrine signal that accelerates stumpy formation in vivo. Peptidase-generated oligopeptide QS signals being received through TbGPR89 provides a mechanism for both trypanosome SIF production and reception.

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Trypanosomes use quorum sensing to differentiate to transmissible stumpy forms

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A GPR89 protein with oligopeptide transport activity drives parasite differentiation

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Oligopeptide mixtures and synthetic di- and tripeptides promote stumpy formation

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Released parasite oligopeptidases generate the paracrine quorum sensing signal in vivo

A gene expression comparison of Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma congolense in the bloodstream of the mammalian host reveals species-specific adaptations to density-dependent development

In the bloodstream of mammalian hosts Trypanosoma brucei undergoes well-characterised density-dependent growth control and developmental adaptation for transmission. This involves the differentiation from proliferative, morphologically ‘slender’ forms to quiescent ‘stumpy’ forms that preferentially infect the tsetse fly vector. Another important livestock trypanosome, Trypanosoma congolense, also undergoes density-dependent cell-cycle arrest although this is not linked to obvious morphological transformation. Here we have compared the gene expression profile of T. brucei and T. congolense during the ascending phase of the parasitaemia and at peak parasitaemia in mice, analysing species and developmental differences between proliferating and cell-cycle arrested forms. Despite underlying conservation of their quorum sensing signalling pathway, each species exhibits distinct profiles of gene regulation when analysed by orthogroup and cell surface phylome profiling. This analysis of peak parasitaemia T. congolense provides the first molecular signatures of potential developmental competence, assisting life cycle developmental studies in these important livestock parasites. Furthermore, comparison with T. brucei identifies candidate molecules from each species that may be important for their survival in the mammalian host, transmission or distinct tropism in the tsetse vector.

Animal African trypanosomiases are important diseases of livestock in sub-Saharan Africa. Two of the responsible parasite species are Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma congolense, both being blood-borne parasites transmitted by tsetse flies. In T. brucei there is a well-characterised developmental event in the bloodstream that prepares the parasite for tsetse transmission—the generation of morphologically stumpy forms. In contrast, Trypanosoma congolense does not undergo the same obvious morphological event, but does respond to parasite density in the mammalian bloodstream by accumulating as a cell cycle arrested form. This prompted us to explore the adaptations of T. congolense in response to cell density in blood and to compare this with T. brucei. The datasets generated, and their analysis, represent a first detailed transcriptional profile for T. congolense and also a new high-resolution analysis of the developmental forms of T. brucei in a mammalian host. Critically, the analysis also carefully characterised the biological material used for RNA-seq analysis with respect to cell cycle status, morphology and the expression (in the case of T. brucei) of PAD1 –a molecular marker for stumpy forms. The manuscript highlights clear differences in the developmental adaptation of each parasite species, with T. congolense showing less extreme adaptation at peak parasitaemia than T. brucei. Nonetheless, several predicted surface protein families in T. congolense are strongly upregulated at high parasite density in the bloodstream, which may represent adaptations for their transmission or survival.

Non-linear hierarchy of the quorum sensing signalling pathway in bloodstream form African trypanosomes

Trypanosoma brucei, the agents of African trypanosomiasis, undergo density-dependent differentiation in the mammalian bloodstream to prepare for transmission by tsetse flies. This involves the generation of cell-cycle arrested, quiescent, stumpy forms from proliferative slender forms. The signalling pathway responsible for the quorum sensing response has been catalogued using a genome-wide selective screen, providing a compendium of signalling protein kinases phosphatases, RNA binding proteins and hypothetical proteins. However, the ordering of these components is unknown. To piece together these components to provide a description of how stumpy formation arises we have used an extragenic suppression approach. This exploited a combinatorial gene knockout and overexpression strategy to assess whether the loss of developmental competence in null mutants of pathway components could be compensated by ectopic expression of other components. We have created null mutants for three genes in the stumpy induction factor signalling pathway (RBP7, YAK, MEKK1) and evaluated complementation by expression of RBP7, NEK17, PP1-6, or inducible gene silencing of the proposed differentiation inhibitor TbTOR4. This indicated that the signalling pathway is non-linear. Phosphoproteomic analysis focused on one pathway component, a putative MEKK, identified molecules with altered expression and phosphorylation profiles in MEKK1 null mutants, including another component in the pathway, NEK17. Our data provide a first molecular dissection of multiple components in a signal transduction cascade in trypanosomes.

African trypanosome parasites respond to density sensing information in the bloodstream of their mammalian hosts to generate their transmission stage, the stumpy form. Components of this ‘quorum sensing’ signalling cascade are known but their interactions and ordering are not. Here we have dissected the dependency relationships between molecules in the pathway by combinatorial gene knockout and ectopic expression, as well as by detailed phosphoproteomic analysis of one component. Our results provide a first analysis of the signal pathway architecture, revealing that it is non-linear. Moreover, phosphoproteome analysis reveals pathway hierarchy through identifying that the phosphorylation of a NEK kinase component of the pathway is reduced when a predicted upstream kinase is absent. This provides a framework for the coherent dissection of a signal transduction cascade in these parasites that use quorum sensing to control disease spread.

Prediction of intramuscular fat content and shear force in Texel lamb loins using combinations of different X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning techniques

Computed tomography (CT) parameters, including spiral computed tomography scanning (SCTS) parameters, intramuscular fat (IMF) and mechanically measured shear force were derived from two previously published studies. Purebred Texel (n = 377) of both sexes, females (n = 206) and intact males (n = 171) were used to investigate the prediction of IMF and shear force in the loin. Two and three dimensional CT density information was available. Accuracies in the prediction of shear force and IMF ranged from R² 0.02 to R² 0.13 and R² 0.51 to R² 0.71 respectively, using combinations of SCTS and CT scan information. The prediction of mechanical shear force could not be achieved at an acceptable level of accuracy employing SCTS information. However, the prediction of IMF in the loin employing information from SCTS and additional information from standard CT scans was successful, providing evidence that the prediction of IMF and related meat eating quality (MEQ) traits for Texel lambs in vivo can be achieved.

Interspecies quorum sensing in co-infections can manipulate trypanosome transmission potential

Quorum sensing (QS) is commonly used in microbial communities and some unicellular parasites to coordinate group behaviours1,2. An example is Trypanosoma brucei that causes Human African trypanosomiasis, as well as the livestock disease, nagana. Trypanosomes are spread by tsetse flies, transmission being enabled by cell-cycle arrested ‘stumpy forms’ that are generated in a density-dependent manner in mammalian blood. QS is mediated through a small (<500 Da), non-proteinaceous, stable but unidentified ‘stumpy induction factor’3, whose signal response pathway has been identified. Although QS is characterised in T. brucei, co-infections with other trypanosome species (T. congolense, T. vivax) are common in animals, generating the potential for interspecies interactions. Here, we show that T. congolense exhibits density-dependent growth control in vivo and conserves QS-regulatory genes, of which one can complement a T. brucei QS signal-blind mutant to restore stumpy formation. Thereafter we demonstrate that T. congolense-conditioned culture medium promotes T. brucei stumpy formation in vitro, dependent upon integrity of the QS signalling pathway. Finally, we show that, in vivo, co-infection with T. congolense accelerates differentiation to stumpy forms in T. brucei, this also being QS dependent. These cross-species interactions have important implications for trypanosome virulence, transmission, competition and evolution in the field.

The Cytological Events and Molecular Control of Life Cycle Development of Trypanosoma brucei in the Mammalian Bloodstream

African trypanosomes cause devastating disease in sub-Saharan Africa in humans and livestock. The parasite lives extracellularly within the bloodstream of mammalian hosts and is transmitted by blood-feeding tsetse flies. In the blood, trypanosomes exhibit two developmental forms: the slender form and the stumpy form. The slender form proliferates in the bloodstream, establishes the parasite numbers and avoids host immunity through antigenic variation. The stumpy form, in contrast, is non-proliferative and is adapted for transmission. Here, we overview the features of slender and stumpy form parasites in terms of their cytological and molecular characteristics and discuss how these contribute to their distinct biological functions. Thereafter, we describe the technical developments that have enabled recent discoveries that uncover how the slender to stumpy transition is enacted in molecular terms. Finally, we highlight new understanding of how control of the balance between slender and stumpy form parasites interfaces with other components of the infection dynamic of trypanosomes in their mammalian hosts. This interplay between the host environment and the parasite’s developmental biology may expose new vulnerabilities to therapeutic attack or reveal where drug control may be thwarted by the biological complexity of the parasite’s lifestyle.

Genome-wide RNAi selection identifies a regulator of transmission stage-enriched gene families and cell-type differentiation in Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosoma brucei, causing African sleeping-sickness, exploits quorum-sensing (QS) to generate the ‘stumpy forms’ necessary for the parasite’s transmission to tsetse-flies. These quiescent cells are generated by differentiation in the bloodstream from proliferative slender forms. Using genome-wide RNAi selection we screened for repressors of transmission stage-enriched mRNAs in slender forms, using the stumpy-elevated ESAG9 transcript as a model. This identified REG9.1, whose RNAi-silencing alleviated ESAG9 repression in slender forms and tsetse-midgut procyclic forms. Interestingly, trypanosome surface protein Family 5 and Family 7 mRNAs were also elevated, which, like ESAG9, are T. brucei specific and stumpy-enriched. We suggest these contribute to the distinct transmission biology and vector tropism of T. brucei from other African trypanosome species. As well as surface family regulation, REG9.1-depletion generated QS-independent development to stumpy forms in vivo, whereas REG9.1 overexpression in bloodstream forms potentiated spontaneous differentiation to procyclic forms in the absence of an external signal. Combined, this identifies REG9.1 as a regulator of developmental cell fate, controlling the expression of Trypanosoma brucei-specific molecules elevated during transmission.

African trypanosomes cause important disease of humans and livestock in sub Saharan Africa and are transmitted by tsetse flies. In preparation for transmission, Trypanosoma brucei uses quorum sensing to generate ‘stumpy forms’ that are arrested and express a distinct subset of genes to the ‘slender forms’ that proliferate to establish the parasitaemia in the bloodstream. This necessitates that stumpy-enriched transcripts are repressed in slender forms, although the molecular control of this is unknown. Here, we have developed a genome-wide selectional strategy to isolate repressors of stumpy-enriched genes, and successfully identified a novel regulatory molecule, termed REG9.1. Silencing of REG9.1 alleviates the repression of the previously characterised stumpy-enriched ESAG9 gene family, and also two novel predicted surface protein families that are specific to Trypansoma brucei but absent from other African trypanosome species. REG9.1 silencing also drives density-independent differentiation to stumpy forms, whereas its ectopic expression in bloodstream forms potentiates differentiation to tsetse midgut procyclic forms in the absence of an external signal. REG9.1 is therefore identified as a novel developmental regulator whose action may contribute to the species-specific transmission biology of Trypanosoma brucei, which differs from that of either Trypanosoma congolense or Trypanosoma vivax.

The within-host dynamics of African trypanosome infections

African trypanosomes are single-celled protozoan parasites that are capable of long-term survival while living extracellularly in the bloodstream and tissues of mammalian hosts. Prolonged infections are possible because trypanosomes undergo antigenic variation-the expression of a large repertoire of antigenically distinct surface coats, which allows the parasite population to evade antibody-mediated elimination. The mechanisms by which antigen genes become activated influence their order of expression, most likely by influencing the frequency of productive antigen switching, which in turn is likely to contribute to infection chronicity. Superimposed upon antigen switching as a contributor to trypanosome infection dynamics is the density-dependent production of cell-cycle arrested parasite transmission stages, which limit the infection while ensuring parasite spread to new hosts via the bite of blood-feeding tsetse flies. Neither antigen switching nor developmental progression to transmission stages is driven by the host. However, the host can contribute to the infection dynamic through the selection of distinct antigen types, the influence of genetic susceptibility or trypanotolerance and the potential influence of host-dependent effects on parasite virulence, development of transmission stages and pathogenicity. In a zoonotic infection cycle where trypanosomes circulate within a range of host animal populations, and in some cases humans, there is considerable scope for a complex interplay between parasite immune evasion, transmission potential and host factors to govern the profile and outcome of infection.

Molecular control of irreversible bistability during trypanosome developmental commitment

Phosphoproteomic and functional analysis of the developmental progression of Trypanosomes demonstrates that this transition shows bistability, with commitment to differentiation requiring new protein synthesis, and that the protein kinase NRK is a key regulator.

The life cycle of Trypanosoma brucei involves developmental transitions that allow survival, proliferation, and transmission of these parasites. One of these, the differentiation of growth-arrested stumpy forms in the mammalian blood into insect-stage procyclic forms, can be induced synchronously in vitro with cis-aconitate. Here, we show that this transition is an irreversible bistable switch, and we map the point of commitment to differentiation after exposure to cis-aconitate. This irreversibility implies that positive feedback mechanisms operate to allow commitment (i.e., the establishment of “memory” of exposure to the differentiation signal). Using the reversible translational inhibitor cycloheximide, we show that this signal memory requires new protein synthesis. We further performed stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture to analyze synchronized parasite populations, establishing the protein and phosphorylation profile of parasites pre- and postcommitment, thereby defining the “commitment proteome.” Functional interrogation of this data set identified Nek-related kinase as the first-discovered protein kinase controlling the initiation of differentiation to procyclic forms.

NMD3 regulates both mRNA and rRNA nuclear export in African trypanosomes via an XPOI-linked pathway

Trypanosomes mostly regulate gene expression through post-transcriptional mechanisms, particularly mRNA stability. However, much mRNA degradation is cytoplasmic such that mRNA nuclear export must represent an important level of regulation. Ribosomal RNAs must also be exported from the nucleus and the trypanosome orthologue of NMD3 has been confirmed to be involved in rRNA processing and export, matching its function in other organisms. Surprisingly, we found that TbNMD3 depletion also generates mRNA accumulation of procyclin-associated genes (PAGs), these being co-transcribed by RNA polymerase I with the procyclin surface antigen genes expressed on trypanosome insect forms. By whole transcriptome RNA-seq analysis of TbNMD3-depleted cells we confirm the regulation of the PAG transcripts by TbNMD3 and using reporter constructs reveal that PAG1 regulation is mediated by its 5'UTR. Dissection of the mechanism of regulation demonstrates that it is not dependent upon translational inhibition mediated by TbNMD3 depletion nor enhanced transcription. However, depletion of the nuclear export factors XPO1 or MEX67 recapitulates the effects of TbNMD3 depletion on PAG mRNAs and mRNAs accumulated in the nucleus of TbNMD3-depleted cells. These results invoke a novel RNA regulatory mechanism involving the NMD3-dependent nuclear export of mRNA cargos, suggesting a shared platform for mRNA and rRNA export.

Assembling the components of the quorum sensing pathway in African trypanosomes

African trypanosomes, parasites that cause human sleeping sickness, undergo a density-dependent differentiation in the bloodstream of their mammalian hosts. This process is driven by a released parasite-derived factor that causes parasites to accumulate in G1 and become quiescent. This is accompanied by morphological transformation to 'stumpy' forms that are adapted to survival and further development when taken up in the blood meal of tsetse flies, the vector for trypanosomiasis. Although the soluble signal driving differentiation to stumpy forms is unidentified, a recent genome-wide RNAi screen identified many of the intracellular signalling and effector molecules required for the response to this signal. These resemble components of nutritional starvation and quiescence pathways in other eukaryotes, suggesting that parasite development shares similarities with the adaptive quiescence of organisms such as yeasts and Dictyostelium in response to nutritional starvation and stress. Here, the trypanosome signalling pathway is discussed in the context of these conserved pathways and the possible contributions of opposing 'slender retainer' and 'stumpy inducer' arms described. As evolutionarily highly divergent eukaryotes, the organisation and conservation of this developmental pathway can provide insight into the developmental cycle of other protozoan parasites, as well as the adaptive and programmed developmental responses of all eukaryotic cells.

25 years of African trypanosome research: From description to molecular dissection and new drug discovery

The Molecular Parasitology conference was first held at the Marine Biological laboratory, Woods Hole, USA 25 years ago. Since that first meeting, the conference has evolved and expanded but has remained the showcase for the latest research developments in molecular parasitology. In this perspective, I reflect on the scientific discoveries focussed on African trypanosomes (Trypanosoma brucei spp.) that have occurred since the inaugural MPM meeting and discuss the current and future status of research on these parasites.

The silicon trypanosome: a test case of iterative model extension in systems biology

The African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei, is a unicellular parasite causing African Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in animals). Due to some of its unique properties, it has emerged as a popular model organism in systems biology. A predictive quantitative model of glycolysis in the bloodstream form of the parasite has been constructed and updated several times. The Silicon Trypanosome is a project that brings together modellers and experimentalists to improve and extend this core model with new pathways and additional levels of regulation. These new extensions and analyses use computational methods that explicitly take different levels of uncertainty into account. During this project, numerous tools and techniques have been developed for this purpose, which can now be used for a wide range of different studies in systems biology.

Investigating mammalian tyrosine phosphatase inhibitors as potential 'piggyback' leads to target Trypanosoma brucei transmission

African trypanosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease affecting humans and animals across 36 sub-Saharan African countries. We have investigated the potential to exploit a 'piggyback' approach to inhibit Trypanosoma brucei transmission by targeting the key developmental regulator of transmission, T. brucei protein tyrosine phosphatase 1. This strategy took advantage of the extensive investment in inhibitors for human protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B, a key target for pharmaceutical companies for the treatment of obesity and diabetes. Structural predictions for human and trypanosome tyrosine phosphatases revealed the overall conservation of important functional motifs, validating the potential for exploiting cross specific compounds. Thereafter, nineteen inhibitors were evaluated; seventeen from a protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B-targeted inhibitor library and two from literature analysis - oleanolic acid and suramin, the latter of which is a front line drug against African trypanosomiasis. The compounds tested displayed similar inhibitory activities against the human and trypanosome enzymes, mostly behaving as noncompetitive inhibitors. However, their activity against T. brucei in culture was low, necessitating further chemical modification to improve their efficacy and specificity. Nonetheless, the results validate the potential to explore a 'piggyback' strategy targeting T. brucei protein tyrosine phosphatase 1 through exploiting the large pharmacological investment in therapies for obesity targeting protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B.

Bloodstream form pre-adaptation to the tsetse fly in Trypanosoma brucei

African trypanosomes are sustained in the bloodstream of their mammalian hosts by their extreme capacity for antigenic variation. However, for life cycle progression, trypanosomes also must generate transmission stages called stumpy forms that are pre-adapted to survive when taken up during the bloodmeal of the disease vector, tsetse flies. These stumpy forms are rather different to the proliferative slender forms that maintain the bloodstream parasitaemia. Firstly, they are non proliferative and morphologically distinct, secondly, they show particular sensitivity to environmental cues that signal entry to the tsetse fly and, thirdly, they are relatively robust such that they survive the changes in temperature, pH and proteolytic environment encountered within the tsetse midgut. These characteristics require regulated changes in gene expression to pre-adapt the parasite and the use of environmental sensing mechanisms, both of which allow the rapid initiation of differentiation to tsetse midgut procyclic forms upon transmission. Interestingly, the generation of stumpy forms is also regulated and periodic in the mammalian blood, this being governed by a density-sensing mechanism whereby a parasite-derived signal drives cell cycle arrest and cellular development both to optimize transmission and to prevent uncontrolled parasite multiplication overwhelming the host. In this review we detail recent developments in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underpin the production of stumpy forms in the mammalian bloodstream and their signal perception pathways both in the mammalian bloodstream and upon entry into the tsetse fly. These discoveries are discussed in the context of conserved eukaryotic signaling and differentiation mechanisms. Further, their potential to act as targets for therapeutic strategies that disrupt parasite development either in the mammalian bloodstream or upon their transmission to tsetse flies is also discussed.

Independent pathways can transduce the life-cycle differentiation signal in Trypanosoma brucei

African trypanosomes cause disease in humans and livestock, generating significant health and welfare problems throughout sub-Saharan Africa. When ingested in a tsetse fly bloodmeal, trypanosomes must detect their new environment and initiate the developmental responses that ensure transmission. The best-established environmental signal is citrate/cis aconitate (CCA), this being transmitted through a protein phosphorylation cascade involving two phosphatases: one that inhibits differentiation (TbPTP1) and one that activates differentiation (TbPIP39). Other cues have been also proposed (mild acid, trypsin exposure, glucose depletion) but their physiological relevance and relationship to TbPTP1/TbPIP39 signalling is unknown. Here we demonstrate that mild acid and CCA operate through TbPIP39 phosphorylation, whereas trypsin attack of the parasite surface uses an alternative pathway that is dispensable in tsetse flies. Surprisingly, glucose depletion is not an important signal. Mechanistic analysis through biophysical methods suggests that citrate promotes differentiation by causing TbPTP1 and TbPIP39 to interact.

African trypanosomes are important pathogens transmitted by tsetse flies in sub-Saharan Africa. Upon transmission, trypanosomes detect citrate and cis-aconitate in the bloodmeal, this inactivating a negative regulator of differentiation, the tyrosine phosphatase TbPTP1. One TbPTP1 substrate is another phosphatase, TbPIP39, which is more active when phosphorylated (after TbPTP1 inhibition) and promotes differentiation. These differentiation regulators have provided tools to monitor whether one or more environmental signals are used to initiate trypanosome development and their relevance in vivo. This is important because different studies over the last 30 years have disputed the physiological importance of different signals. Here we have, firstly, compared the efficacy of the different reported differentiation signals, establishing their relative importance. We then monitored TbPIP39 phosphorylation to show that two signalling pathways operate: one signalled by citrate or mild acid, the other stimulated by external protease activity. Thereafter, we showed that, of these different signals, protease activity is dispensable for differentiation in tsetse flies. Finally, we used biophysical methods to investigate how citrate causes TbPIP39 and TbPTP1 to interact, enabling their regulatory cross-talk. These studies have established the importance of different developmental signals in trypanosomes, providing molecular insight into how the development signal is transduced within the pathogen.

Stable transformation of pleomorphic bloodstream form Trypanosoma brucei

African trypanosomes differentiate between various developmental stages both in mammalian hosts and their tsetse vector to adapt to and survive in the different environments they encounter. In the bloodstream, trypanosomes naturally exist as either proliferative slender-forms or non-proliferative stumpy-forms, the latter being responsible for both prolonged infection and transmission. However, most trypanosome studies are carried out on laboratory-adapted monomorphic cell lines, incapable of differentiating to stumpy-forms or completing the life cycle through the tsetse fly. Partly, this has been due to the inefficiency of transfection of pleomorphic strains which have retained the ability to generate stumpy-forms. Recently, Amaxa Nucleofector® technology was shown to increase transfection efficiency for monomorphic bloodstream forms. Using this technology we have optimised a similar method for pleomorphic bloodstream form transfection, generating transfection efficiencies of 10(-7)-10(-6). This permits routine genetic manipulation of pleomorphic lines, which have the most biological relevance for trypanosomes in the field.

A short bifunctional element operates to positively or negatively regulate ESAG9 expression in different developmental forms of Trypanosoma brucei

In their mammalian host trypanosomes generate 'stumpy' forms from proliferative 'slender' forms as an adaptation for transmission to their tsetse fly vector. This transition is characterised by the repression of many genes while quiescent stumpy forms accumulate during each wave of parasitaemia. However, a subset of genes are upregulated either as an adaptation for transmission or to sustain infection chronicity. Among this group are ESAG9 proteins, whose genes were originally identified as a component of some telomeric variant surface glycoprotein gene expression sites, although many members of this diverse family are also transcribed elsewhere in the genome. ESAG9 genes are among the most highly regulated genes in transmissible stumpy forms, encoding a group of secreted proteins of cryptic function. To understand their developmental silencing in slender forms and activation in stumpy forms, the post-transcriptional control signals for a well conserved ESAG9 gene have been mapped. This identified a precise RNA sequence element of 34 nucleotides that contributes to gene expression silencing in slender forms but also acts positively, activating gene expression in stumpy forms. We predict that this bifunctional RNA sequence element is targeted by competing negative and positive regulatory factors in distinct developmental forms of the parasite. Analysis of the 3'UTR regulatory regions flanking the highly diverse ESAG9 family reveals that the linear regulatory sequence is not highly conserved, suggesting that RNA structure is important for interactions with regulatory proteins.

An international study on the importance of androstenone and skatole for boar taint: III. Consumer survey in seven European countries

There has long been debate over the relative importance for consumer acceptability of androstenone and skatole. The objective of this study was to investigate consumer reaction to pig meat of varying levels of androstenone and skatole in seven member states of the European Union. Over 4000 entire male pigs (and 233 gilts as a control) were produced in six European countries, and a sub-sample of 420 were selected to represent a range of androstenone and skatole levels. Loin samples from these pigs were distributed to the seven participating countries. Samples were prepared and cooked according to standardised procedures in each of the countries and presented to pork consumers. Each consumer rated samples from five pigs for liking of flavour and liking of odour. Although there were significant differences between country panels in their liking of meat from entire males generally, there was a greater degree of dislike as both androstenone and skatole increased. This reaction was stronger for skatole than androstenone and consumers reacted more negatively in terms of odour than flavour.

Identification of the regulatory elements controlling the transmission stage-specific gene expression of PAD1 in Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosomatid parasites provide an extreme model for the posttranscriptional control of eukaryotic gene expression. However, most analysis of their differential gene regulation has focussed on comparisons between life-cycle stages that exist in the blood of mammalian hosts and tsetse flies, the parasite's vector. These environments differ acutely in their temperature, and nutritional, metabolic and molecular composition. In the bloodstream, however, a more exquisitely regulated developmental step occurs: the production of transmissible stumpy forms from proliferative slender forms. This transition occurs in the relatively homogenous bloodstream environment, with stumpy-specific gene expression being repressed until accumulation of a proposed parasite-derived signal, stumpy induction factor. Here, we have dissected the regulatory signals that repress the expression of the stumpy-specific surface transporter PAD1 in slender forms. Using transgenic parasites capable of stumpy formation we show that PAD1-repression is mediated by its 3'-untranslated region. Dissection of this region in monomorphic slender forms and pleomorphic slender and stumpy forms has revealed that two regulatory regions co-operate to repress PAD1 expression, this being alleviated on exposure to SIF in pleomorphs or cAMP analogues that act as stumpy induction factor mimics in monomorphs. These studies identify elements that regulate trypanosome gene expression during development in their mammalian host.

Trypanosomal immune evasion, chronicity and transmission: an elegant balancing act

During their life cycle, trypanosomes must overcome conflicting demands to ensure their survival and transmission. First, they must evade immunity without overwhelming the host. Second, they must generate and maintain transmission stages at sufficient levels to allow passage into their tsetse vector. Finally, they must rapidly commit to onward development when they enter the tsetse fly. On the basis of recent quantification and modelling of Trypanosoma brucei infection dynamics, we propose that the interplay between immune evasion and development achieves both infection chronicity and transmissibility. Moreover, we suggest that a novel form of bistable regulation ensures developmental commitment on entry into the tsetse fly midgut.

Harnessing evolutionary biology to combat infectious disease

Pathogens exhibit remarkable abilities to flout therapeutic intervention. This outcome is driven by evolution, either as a direct response to intervention (e.g. the evolution of antibiotic resistance), or through long-term coevolution generating host or parasite traits that interact with therapy in undesirable or unpredicted ways. To make progress, the concepts and techniques of evolutionary biology must be deeply integrated with traditional approaches to immunology and pathogen biology. An interdisciplinary approach can inform control strategies, or even patient treatment, positioning us to meet the current and future challenges of controlling infectious diseases.

The post-transcriptional trans-acting regulator, TbZFP3, co-ordinates transmission-stage enriched mRNAs in Trypanosoma brucei

Post-transcriptional gene regulation is essential to eukaryotic development. This is particularly emphasized in trypanosome parasites where genes are co-transcribed in polycistronic arrays but not necessarily co-regulated. The small CCCH protein, TbZFP3, has been identified as a trans-acting post-transcriptional regulator of Procyclin surface antigen expression in Trypanosoma brucei. To investigate the wider role of TbZFP3 in parasite transmission, a global analysis of associating transcripts was carried out. Examination of a subset of the selected transcripts revealed their increased abundance through mRNA stabilization upon TbZFP3 ectopic overexpression, dependent upon the integrity of the CCCH zinc finger domain. Reporter assays demonstrated that this regulation was mediated through 3′-UTR sequences for two target transcripts. Global developmental expression profiling of the cohort of TbZFP3-selected transcripts revealed their significant enrichment in transmissible stumpy forms of the parasite. This analysis of the specific mRNAs selected by the TbZFP3mRNP provides evidence for a developmental regulon with the potential to co-ordinate genes important in parasite transmission.

Transmission stages dominate trypanosome within-host dynamics during chronic infections

Sleeping sickness is characterized by waves of the extracellular parasite Trypanosoma brucei in host blood, with infections continuing for months or years until inevitable host death. These waves reflect the dynamic conflict between the outgrowth of a succession of parasite antigenic variants and their control by the host immune system. Although a contributor to these dynamics is the density-dependent differentiation from proliferative “slender forms” to transmissible “stumpy forms,” an absence of markers discriminating stumpy forms has prevented accurate parameterization of this component. Here, we exploit the stumpy-specific PAD1 marker, which functionally defines transmission competence, to quantitatively monitor stumpy formation during chronic infections. This allows reconstruction of the temporal events early in infection. Mathematical modeling of these data describes the parameters controlling trypanosome within-host dynamics and provides strong support for a quorum-sensing-like mechanism. Our data reveal the dominance of transmission stages throughout infection, a consequence being austere use of the parasite's antigen repertoire.

Controlling and coordinating development in vector-transmitted parasites

Vector-borne parasites cause major human diseases of the developing world, including malaria, human African trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, filariasis, and schistosomiasis. Although the life cycles of these parasites were defined over 100 years ago, the strategies they use to optimize their successful transmission are only now being understood in molecular terms. Parasites are now known to monitor their environment in both their host and vector and in response to other parasites. This allows them to adapt their developmental cycles and to counteract any unfavorable conditions they encounter. Here, I review the interactions that parasites engage in with their hosts and vectors to maximize their survival and spread.

Trypanosoma brucei brucei: endocytic recycling is important for mouse infectivity

Endocytosis in the African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei, is intimately involved in maintaining homeostasis of the cell surface proteome, morphology of the flagellar pocket and has recently been demonstrated as a bona fide drug target. RNAi-mediated knockdown of many factors required for endocytic transport, including several small GTPases, the major coat protein clathrin and a clathrin-associated receptor, epsinR, results in rapid cell death in vitro. Rapid loss of viability in vitro precludes meaningful investigation by RNAi of the roles of trypanosome endocytosis in vivo. Here we have sought to address this issue using strategies designed to produce milder effects on the endocytic system than complete functional ablation. We created a trypanosome clathrin heavy chain hemizygote and several lines expressing mutant forms of Rab5 and Rab11, described previously. All are viable in in vitro culture, with negligible impact to proliferative rates or cell cycle. Clathrin hemizygotes express clathrin heavy chain at ∼50% of wild type levels, but despite this demonstrate no defect to growth in mice, while none of the Rab5 mutants affected proliferation in vivo, despite clear evidence for effects on endocytosis. By contrast we find that expressing a dominantly active Rab11 mutant led to compromised growth in mice. These data indicate that trypanosomes likely tolerate the effects of partly decreased clathrin expression and alterations in early endocytosis, but are more sensitive to alterations in the recycling arm of the pathway.