Incidence rate of psychiatric disorders in 2020: The pivotal role played by SARS-CoV-2 infection

Importance

The Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) pandemic has significantly impacted mental health outcomes. While the frequency of anxiety and depressive symptoms has increased in the whole population, the relationship between COVID-19 and new psychiatric diagnoses remains unclear.

Objective

To compare the population incidence rate of emergence of de novo psychiatric disorders in 2020 compared to the previous years, and to compare the incidence rate of new psychiatric disorder diagnoses between people with vs without COVID-19.

Design, setting, and participants

This study utilized administrative claims data from the Clinformatics® Data Mart database, licensed from Optum®. The study is a cross-sectional analysis that compared the incidence rate of new psychiatric disorders in 2020 vs. 2018 and 2019 in the entire insured population database. Subsequently, the incidence of new psychiatric disorders in people with vs. without COVID-19 during 2020 was analyzed.

Exposure

The exposures included diagnosis and severity of COVID-19 infection.

Main outcomes measures

The dependent variables of interest were the incidence rates of new psychiatric disorders, specifically schizophrenia spectrum disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Results

The population studied included 10,463,672 US adults (mean age 52.83, 52% female) who were unique people for the year of 2020. Incidence of newly diagnosed psychiatric disorders per 1,000 individuals in the 2020 whole population were 28.81 (CI: 28.71, 28.92) for anxiety disorders, 1.04 (CI: 1.02, 1.06) for schizophrenia disorders, 0.42 (CI: 0.41, 0.43) for OCD and 28.85 (CI: 28.75, 28.95) for mood disorders. These rates were not significantly higher than 2018 or 2019. When comparing incidence rates between COVID-19 vs. non-COVID-19 populations in 2020, the rates were significantly higher in the COVID-19 population: 46.89 (CI: 46.24, 47.53) for anxiety, 49.31 (CI: 48.66, 49.97) for mood disorders, 0.57 (CI: 0.50, 0.65) for OCD, and 3.52 (CI: 3.34, 3.70) for schizophrenia. COVID-19 severity was significantly associated with new diagnoses of schizophrenia, anxiety and mood disorders in multivariate analyses.

Conclusions

Compared to 2018 and 2019, in 2020 there was no increased incidence of new psychiatric disorders in the general population based on insurance claims data. Importantly, people with COVID-19 were more likely to be diagnosed with a new psychiatric disorder, most notably disorders with psychosis, indicating a potential association between COVID-19 and mental/brain health.

The role of lithium treatment on comorbid anxiety symptoms in patients with bipolar depression

BACKGROUND

Comorbid anxiety is pervasive and carries an immense psychosocial burden for patients with bipolar disorder. Despite this, trials reporting anxiety-related outcomes in this population are uncommon, particularly with regards to monotherapies.

METHODS

Patients (n = 31) with both bipolar I or II disorder in current depressive episodes were enrolled in a six-week, open-label, single-center trial assessing the efficacy of lithium monotherapy in treating symptoms depression and comorbid anxiety. Patients were mostly medication-free and lithium-naïve at baseline.

RESULTS

Significant improvements in depression (HAMD) and anxiety (HAM-A) were observed at the six-week endpoint, with remission and response rates greater than 50%. There was a positive correlation between endpoint HAM-A scores and HAM-D scores, r = 0.80, (p < 0.01). Improvements were realized at low serum lithium concentrations (0.49 ± 0.20 mEq/L).

LIMITATIONS

Lack of placebo control and small sample size warrants validation in larger randomized studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken in the context of prior evidence, lithium may have an important role in treating comorbid anxiety in bipolar disorder, both as adjunct and monotherapy. Lower doses of lithium may provide equivalent efficacy and enhance tolerability and compliance.

Evaluating the Efficacy of Automated Smoking Treatment for People With HIV: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Smoking prevalence rates among people with HIV are nearly 3 times higher than those in the general population. Nevertheless, few smoking cessation trials targeting smokers with HIV have been reported in the literature. Efforts to develop and evaluate sustainable, low-cost, and evidence-based cessation interventions for people with HIV are needed. Given the widespread proliferation of mobile phones, the potential of using mobile health apps to improve the reach and efficacy of cessation interventions is promising, but evidence of efficacy is lacking, particularly among people with HIV.

Objective

This study will consist of a 2-group randomized controlled trial to evaluate a fully automated smartphone intervention for people with HIV seeking cessation treatment.

Methods

Participants (N=500) will be randomized to receive either standard treatment (ST; 250/500, 50%) or automated treatment (AT; 250/500, 50%). ST participants will be connected to the Florida Quitline and will receive nicotine replacement therapy in the form of transdermal patches and lozenges. This approach, referred to as Ask Advise Connect, was developed by our team and has been implemented in numerous health systems. ST will be compared with AT, a fully automated behavioral treatment approach. AT participants will receive nicotine replacement therapy and an interactive smartphone-based intervention that comprises individually tailored audiovisual and text content. The major goal is to determine whether AT performs better in terms of facilitating long-term smoking abstinence than the more resource-intensive ST approach. Our primary aim is to evaluate the efficacy of AT in facilitating smoking cessation among people with HIV. As a secondary aim, we will explore potential mediators and moderators and conduct economic evaluations to assess the cost and cost-effectiveness of AT compared with ST.

Results

The intervention content has been developed and finalized. Recruitment and enrollment will begin in the fall of 2021.

Conclusions

There is a critical need for efficacious, cost-effective, and sustainable cessation treatments for people with HIV who smoke. The AT intervention was designed to help fill this need. If efficacy is established, the AT approach will be readily adoptable by HIV clinics and community-based organizations, and it will offer an efficient way to allocate limited public health resources to tobacco control interventions.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05014282; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05014282

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

PRR1-10.2196/33183

Apathy is not associated with a panel of biomarkers in older adults with HIV disease

OBJECTIVE

Apathy is prevalent in HIV disease and can significantly impact personal well-being; however, little is known about its neurobiological substrates in persons with HIV (PWH) disease.

METHODS

This cross-sectional, correlational study examined the association between apathy and several plasma biomarkers (tumor necrosis factor alpha, kynurenine, tryptophan, quinolinic acid, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, glial fibrillary acidic protein, neurofilament light chain, and phosphorylated tau at position threonine 181) in 109 PWH and 30 seronegative participants ages 50 and older. Apathy was measured with a composite score derived from subscales of the Frontal Systems Behavior Scale and the Profile of Mood States.

RESULTS

Multiple regressions showed that PWH had significantly greater severity of apathy symptoms, independent of both data-driven and conceptually-based covariates. Pairwise correlations in the PWH sample indicated that apathy was not significantly associated with any of the measured biomarkers and all of the effect sizes were small.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that apathy is not strongly associated with peripheral biomarkers of inflammation, neurotrophic support, or neurodegeneration in older PWH. Limitations of this study include the cross-sectional design, the use of self-report measures of apathy, and low rates of viremia. Longitudinal studies in more representative samples of PWH that include a more comprehensive panel of fluid biomarkers, informant and behavioral indicators of apathy, and relevant psychosocial factors might help to further clarify the neurobiological substrates of this complex neuropsychiatric phenomenon.

Analysis of COVID-19 Infection and Mortality Among Patients With Psychiatric Disorders, 2020

IMPORTANCE

People with major psychiatric disorders are more likely to have comorbidities associated with worse outcomes of COVID-19. This fact alone could determine greater vulnerability of people with major psychiatric disorders to COVID-19.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the odds of testing positive for and mortality from COVID-19 among and between patients with schizophrenia, mood disorders, anxiety disorders and a reference group in a large national database.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This cross-sectional study used an electronic health record data set aggregated from many national sources in the United States and licensed from Optum with current and historical data on patients tested for COVID-19 in 2020. Three psychiatric cohorts (patients with schizophrenia, mood disorders, or anxiety disorders) were compared with a reference group with no major psychiatric conditions. Statistical analysis was performed from March to April 2021.

EXPOSURE

The exposures observed include lab-confirmed positivity for COVID-19 and mortality.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The odds of testing positive for COVID-19 in 2020 and the odds of death from COVID-19 were measured.

RESULTS

The population studied included 2 535 098 unique persons, 3350 with schizophrenia, 26 610 with mood disorders, and 18 550 with anxiety disorders. The mean (SD) age was 44 (23) years; 233 519 were non-Hispanic African American, 1 583 440 were non-Hispanic Caucasian; and 1 580 703 (62%) were female. The schizophrenia cohort (positivity rate: 9.86%; adjusted OR, 0.90 [95% CI, 0.84-0.97]) and the mood disorder cohort (positivity rate: 9.86%; adjusted OR, 0.93 [95% CI, 0.87-0.99]) had a significantly lower rate of positivity than the anxiety disorder cohort (positivity rate: 11.17%; adjusted OR, 1.05 [95% CI, 0.98-1.12) which was closer to the reference group (11.91%). After fully adjusting for demographic factors and comorbid conditions, patients with schizophrenia were nearly 4 times more likely to die from the disease than the reference group (OR, 3.74; 95% CI, 2.66-5.24). The mood disorders COVID-19 cohort had a 2.76 times greater odds of mortality than the reference group (OR, 2.76; 95% CI, 2.00-3.81), and the anxiety disorders cohort had a 2.39 times greater odds of mortality than the reference group (OR, 2.39; 95% CI, 1.68-3.27).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

By examining a large database while controlling for multiple confounding factors such as age, race and ethnicity, and comorbid medical conditions, the present study found that patients with schizophrenia had much increased odds of mortality by COVID-19.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is associated with depressive symptoms in older adults with HIV disease

Symptoms of depression are common among persons with HIV (PWH) and can have a significant impact on socioeconomic and personal well-being, but little is known about their neurobiological substrates in the context of HIV disease. This study examined the possible role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in symptoms of depression and other aspects of mood in 109 PWH and 43 seronegative participants aged 50 and older. Participants completed the Profile of Mood States (POMS) which measured six dimensions of mood and was normatively adjusted for sex. A model controlling for medical comorbidities and substance use diagnoses among PWH showed a significant interaction between BDNF and POMS subscales. Planned post hoc analyses revealed that lower BDNF was only associated with higher scores on Depression-Dejection and Confusion-Bewilderment POMS subscales among PWH and at small-to-medium effect sizes. Lower levels of BDNF were associated with AIDS diagnoses and CD4 count, but not with viremia or duration of infection. BDNF levels did not differ between the PWH and HIV - samples, and there were no significant correlations between BDNF and any POMS variable in the HIV - group. Findings implicate BDNF in the neuropathophysiology of specific depressive symptoms in the context of HIV disease. Future studies may examine whether BDNF levels change over time, are sensitive to other aspects of mood disorders in HIV, and are associated with markers of HIV-associated neural injury.

Veterans Aging Cohort Study Index as a Marker of Bone Disease in HIV-Infected Patients

People living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection have higher risk of low bone mineral density (BMD) and fragility fracture than general population. The aim of our retrospective study was to explore if HIV-specific Veterans Aging Cohort Study (VACS) Index and its specific components could help identify patients at risk for low BMD. A total of 195 HIV-infected patients with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan between 2007 and 2014 were included and DXA scan results were used to classify patients with osteopenia. VACS Index was calculated for all patients using laboratory values closest to the date of DXA scan. Logistic regression was used to assess the association between VACS Index score or individual components of VACS Index with the presence of low BMD after adjusting for confounding variables. A total of 109 (56%) patients were diagnosed with low BMD. VACS Index score was significantly associated with low BMD, with the odds of low BMD increasing 1.21 times for each 10 unit increase in VACS Index score [confidence interval (95% CI) 1.03-1.42; p = .02]. The two groups differed significantly on patient weights, proportion of white patients, and hepatitis C-coinfected patients. After adjusting for white race and weight, hepatitis C coinfection was significantly associated with increased risk of low BMD (odds ratio 24.4; 95% CI 7.45-80.16). VACS Index score, previously demonstrated to be a marker of frailty in HIV-infected patients, is significantly associated with risk of low BMD and could be used to develop a prediction tool to screen for low BMD in resource-limited setting where DXA scans are not easily available.

Impact of surgical intervention on seizure and psychiatric symptoms in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), a common form of localisation-related epilepsy, is characterised by focal seizures and accompanied by variety of neuropsychiatric symptoms. This form of epilepsy proves difficult to manage as many anticonvulsant and psychotropic medications have little to no effect on controlling the seizure and neuropsychiatric symptoms respectively. The authors, report a patient with TLE and recurrent seizures that were refractory to multiple classes of antiepileptic therapy. Additionally, she exhibited psychosis, depression and irritability that required antipsychotic medication. After several years of poorly controlled seizure disorder, the patient underwent anterior temporal lobectomy and amygdalohippocampectomy, which proved beneficial for seizure control, as well as her neuropsychiatric symptoms. While it is common to treat refractory temporal lobe epilepsy with surgical interventions, there is little literature about it also treating the neuropsychiatric symptoms. This case underscores both the neurological and psychiatric benefits following surgical intervention for patients with TLE.

Baseline Neurocognitive Functioning Predicts Viral Load Suppression at 1-Year Follow-Up Among Newly Diagnosed HIV Infected Patients

The current prospective observational study evaluated the impact of baseline neurocognitive impairment on future viral load suppression among antiretroviral medication naive persons newly diagnosed with HIV infection. We used the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) score less than 26, to identify patients with neurocognitive deficits. Of the 138 patients enrolled; virologic suppression was seen in 61% of the participants, while 72% of the participants had a MoCA score less than 26 at baseline. Variables significantly associated with low MoCA score included higher age (p < 0.01) and presence of depression (p < 0.01). After adjusting for these variables, MoCA score less than 26 was significantly associated with a higher risk of failing achieve viral load suppression (adjusted OR 2.7; 95% CI 1.09-6.69). Baseline neurocognitive deficit as measured by MoCA was associated with a higher risk for failing to achieve viral load suppression at one-year follow-up.

Disseminated histoplasmosis mimicking relapsed chronic lymphocytic leukaemia

Histoplasma microconidia when inhaled are presented in antigenic form to T cells, limiting the extent of infection; however, defects in cellular immunity results in disseminated disease. Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) is a lymphoproliferative disorder resulting in functionally impaired lymphocytes, predisposing patients to various opportunistic infections. The author reports a recently treated patient with CLL presenting with constitutional symptoms accompanied by hepatosplenomegaly and diffuse adenopathy. Considering the recent diagnosis and treatment of CLL, initial suspicion was relapsed disease. However, considering the immune deficiency associated with CLL and its treatment, infectious aetiologies were strongly considered. Further investigation revealed a case of disseminated histoplasmosis mimicking CLL in this reported patient. Considering appropriate diagnosis and timely therapy, the reported patient had good prognosis despite being diagnosed with disseminated histoplasmosis. This case highlights consideration of disseminated histoplasmosis in patients presenting with diffuse adenopathy along with hepatomegaly and/or splenomegaly in the right clinical setting.

Diagnostic approach in persistent Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia

Staphylococcus aureus is the leading cause of bacteraemia and can lead to complicated infections that may be difficult to diagnose and hence lead to higher morbidity. Failure to identify such could lead to severe complications or relapsing bacteraemia due to inadequate treatment. The authors report a patient presenting with methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) bacteraemia and septic arthritis, who developed a complicated infection with multiple metastasis and persistent bacteraemia despite adequate treatment. A fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)-positron emission tomography scan 2 weeks after the initial presentation identified a linear area of intense FDG uptake within the right upper extremity which raised suspicion for an infected thrombus within the right cephalic vein. Adequate treatment of the infected thrombus helped resolve the patient's persistent MRSA bacteraemia and complicated infection. This case highlights the importance of considering suppurative thrombophlebitis in the setting of persistent bacteraemia and metastatic infections due to MRSA.

Antiviral therapy for respiratory viral infections in immunocompromised patients

INTRODUCTION

Respiratory viruses (influenza, parainfluenza, respiratory syncytial virus, coronavirus, human metapneumovirus, and rhinovirus) represent the most common causes of respiratory viral infections in immunocompromised patients. Also, these infections may be more severe in immunocompromised patients than in the general population. Early diagnosis and treatment of viral infections continue to be of paramount importance in immunocompromised patients; because once viral replication and invasive infections are evident, prognosis can be grave. Areas covered: The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the main antiviral agents used for the treatment of respiratory viral infections in immunocompromised patients and review of the new agents in the pipeline. Expert commentary: Over the past decade, important diagnostic advances, specifically, the use of rapid molecular testing has helped close the gap between clinical scenarios and pathogen identification and enhanced early diagnosis of viral infections and understanding of the role of prolonged shedding and viral loads. Advancements in novel antiviral therapeutics with high resistance thresholds and effective immunization for preventable infections in immunocompromised patients are needed.

Fulminant hepatic failure secondary to acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus

Liver failure is a frequent and serious complication that causes morbidity and mortality in haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HCT) recipients. Liver dysfunction in these patients can be related to infectious causes, most common viral hepatitis. We report a case of disseminated acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection following HCT that led to acute liver failure and death. Although rare, HSV hepatitis leads to high morbidity and mortality and should be considered in the differential diagnosis of HCT recipients with marked elevation of hepatic transaminase. Acyclovir is a first-line therapy for HSV infection; however, acyclovir-resistant viral strains should be considered and alternative HSV therapies given in HCT recipients whose HSV infection does not improve on acyclovir therapy.

Predicting clinical outcomes in patients with negative peripheral and positive central blood culture with coagulase negative Staphylococcus species

OBJECTIVES

Clinical outcomes in patients with negative peripheral and positive central blood culture with coagulase negative staphylococci (CoNS) based on different treatment approach such as intravenous antibiotics, removal of CVC, combined approach or just observation are not known.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective review of patients with negative peripheral and paired positive central blood culture with CoNS admitted at our affiliated hospital between 2008 to 2013. We compared clinical outcomes such as bacteremia, catheter related blood stream infection (CRBSI), mortality and Intensive care unit (ICU) admission over the next 90 days between the 4 groups based on the treatment approach: (1) No treatment received, 2) catheter removed, no antibiotics administered, 3) antibiotics administered, catheter not removed and 4) antibiotics administered, catheter removed). Logistic regression was used to assess the association between treatment approach and outcomes after adjusting for confounding variables.

RESULTS

181 patients were included in the study and followed for 90 days after their initial positive blood cultures. 25 patients (14%) had bacteremia, 4 patients (2%) had CRBSI, 40 patients (22%) died and 10 patients (6%) had an ICU admission in the next 90 days. None of the outcomes differed statistically between the 4 groups.

CONCLUSION

Our study is the first to report no difference in the clinical outcomes in patients with negative peripheral and positive central blood culture with CoNS when compared based on treatment approach. Our study provides initial evidence that treating patients with an isolated central blood culture with CoNS does not change short term clinical outcomes.

Therapeutics targeting inflammation in the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome

Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) is characterized by improvement in a previously incompetent human immune system manifesting as worsening of clinical symptoms secondary to the ability of the immune system to now mount a vigorous inflammatory response. IRIS was first recognized in the setting of human immunodeficiency virus, and this clinical setting continues to be where it is most frequently encountered. Hallmarks of the pathogenesis of IRIS, independent of the clinical presentation and the underlying pathogen, include excessive activation of the immune system, with increased circulating effector memory T cells, and elevated levels of serum cytokines and inflammatory markers. Patients with undiagnosed opportunistic infections remain at risk for unmasking IRIS at the time of active antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation. Systematic screening for opportunistic infections before starting ART is a key element to prevent this phenomenon. Appropriate management of IRIS requires prompt recognition of the syndrome and exclusion of alternative diagnoses, particularly underlying infections and drug resistance. Controlled studies supporting the use of pharmacologic interventions in IRIS are scare, and recommendations are based on case series and expert opinions. The only controlled trial published to date, showed reduction in morbidity in patients with paradoxical tuberculosis-related IRIS with the use of oral corticosteroids. There are currently limited data to recommend other anti-inflammatory or immunomodulatory therapies that are discussed in this review, and further research is needed. Ongoing research regarding the immune pathogenesis of IRIS will likely direct future rational therapeutic approaches and clinical trials.

The Influence of Trust in Physicians and Trust in the Healthcare System on Linkage, Retention, and Adherence to HIV Care

Lack of trust by the patient in the physicians or the healthcare system has been associated with poorer health outcomes. The present study was designed to determine if trust in physicians and the healthcare system among persons newly diagnosed with HIV infection was predictive of patients' subsequent linkage, retention, and adherence to HIV care. 178 newly diagnosed HIV infected patients were administered the trust-in-physicians and trust-in-healthcare system scales. Median trust-in-physicians and trust-in-healthcare system scores were compared for all the mentioned subsequent linkage, retention, and adherence to HIV care. Univariate logistic regression using the trust-in-physician scale confirmed significant association with retention in care (p = 0.04), which persisted in multivariate analyses (p = 0.04). No significant association was found between trust-in-physicians and linkage to care or adherence to antiretroviral therapy. Trust in the healthcare system was not associated with any of the outcomes. Patients with higher trust in physicians were more likely to be retained in HIV care. Trust at diagnosis may not be a barrier to better clinical outcomes, either because trust changes based on subsequent interactions, or because trust is not a determining feature. Interventions to improve retention in care could include improving trust in physicians or target persons with low trust in physicians.

Use of insulin in diabetes: a century of treatment

Insulin is a key player in the control of hyperglycaemia for patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus and selected patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. There have been many advances in insulin drug delivery from its first administration as a crude pancreatic extract till today. The traditional and most predictable method for administration of insulin is by subcutaneous injection. Currently available insulin delivery systems include insulin syringes, infusion pumps, jet injectors, and pens. The major drawback of insulin therapy is its invasive nature. Non-invasive delivery of insulin has long been a major goal for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Although there have been improvements in insulin therapy since it was first conceived, it is still far from mimicking the physiological secretion of pancreatic β-cells, and research to find new insulin formulations and new routes of administration continues. This article reviews the emerging technologies, including insulin inhalers, insulin buccal spray, insulin pill, islet cell transplant, and stem cell therapy, as treatment options for diabetes mellitus.

Moraxella catarrhalis bacteraemia and prosthetic valve endocarditis

Moraxella catarrhalis, once considered a non-pathogenic coloniser of the oropharynx, has now been recognised as a true pathogen and is reported in cases of bacteraemia. A 63-year-old man with an aortic bioprosthetic valve was brought to the emergency room with altered mental status. Initial blood cultures revealed Gram-negative diplococci on Gram stain; echocardiogram showed a 5 mm vegetation on the aortic bioprosthetic valve. The blood cultures grew M. catarrhalis and the patient was treated medically for prosthetic valve endocarditis with 6 weeks of ceftriaxone and had a favourable clinical outcome. M. catarrhalis has a high prevalence of β-lactamase production and hence the patient was treated with ceftriaxone. This case highlights the importance of considering M. catarrhalis as a pathogen in cases of invasive disease.

Use of intravenous immunoglobulin in severe Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea

OBJECTIVE

Clostridium difficile infection is an increasingly common cause of healthcare-acquired diarrhea. There remains substantial morbidity and mortality, even with current modalities of treatment. The aim of our study was to investigate the role of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) on mortality in patients with severe Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD).

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of 21 patients with severe CDAD treated with IVIG in our affiliated hospitals from January 2000 to December 2012 was conducted. As a matching control group, we randomly selected 21 patients meeting the definition of severe CDAD from the same period. Data were compared between these groups using appropriate statistical tests.

RESULTS

Patients in the IVIG group were older (69.8 vs 60.9 years, p = 0.05) and had a higher severity score (5.4 vs 3.9, p = 0.02). Mortality was lower among those who received IVIG as compared to the group who did not receive IVIG; however not statistically significant (18.2 vs 22.7%, p = 0.51).

CONCLUSION

Our data demonstrate that although the patients who received IVIG had significantly severe infection, there was no difference in the mortality rate. Prospective controlled studies are needed to assess the true benefit of IVIG in patient with severe Clostridium difficle infection.

Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in a patient with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a severe opportunistic infection of the central nervous system. A 52-year-old man with HIV infection, recently started on antiretroviral therapy, presented with symptoms of mental cloudiness, blurry vision and ataxia. MRI of the brain showed nodular perivascular space enhancement with surrounding vasogenic oedema and midline shift. A lumbar puncture revealed non-inflammatory cerebrospinal fluid and was positive for JC virus. As the patient developed worsening symptoms in the setting of initiation of antiretroviral therapy with immune recovery, a diagnosis of JC virus-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) was made. With recent literature on the use of CCR5 antagonist maraviroc in PML, our patient was started on maraviroc and noted to have improvement in PML IRIS. This is the first case of an HIV-positive patient successfully treated for PML IRIS with maraviroc, as verified by our literature review; also, our case has clinical implications in improving outcome in PML IRIS.

Steroid unresponsive anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis during pregnancy successfully treated with plasmapheresis

Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis is an autoimmune disorder resulting in neurological and psychiatric symptoms. It is rare during pregnancy and treatment is extremely challenging as little data exist to guide management. A 26-year-old woman presented at 22 weeks of gestation with intermittent headache and an acute episode of bizarre behaviour and grandiose delusions resulting in hospitalisation. The patient was worked up for encephalitis and was found to have anti-NMDA receptor antibody in cerebrospinal fluid as well as in serum. She was initially treated with high-dose steroids but failed to improve clinically and serologically. She was then treated with plasmapheresis and showed clinical and serological response. She had a successful delivery at 37 weeks and the baby did not show serological evidence of disease. This case adds to the sparse literature of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis during pregnancy and adds to the differential diagnosis of new onset psychiatric symptoms during pregnancy.

Intraventricular Taenia solium cysts presenting with Bruns syndrome and indications for emergent neurosurgery

Bruns syndrome is an unusual phenomenon, characterized by attacks of sudden and severe headache, vomiting, and vertigo, triggered by abrupt movement of the head. The presumptive cause of Bruns syndrome is a mobile deformable intraventricular mass leading to an episodic obstructive hydrocephalus. Intraventricular tumors have been associated with Bruns syndrome; however, few cases of intraventricular neurocysticercosis have been reported to present with Bruns syndrome. We report the first series of fourth ventricular neurocysticercosis presenting with Bruns syndrome in the United States and review the other published cases where surgery was indicated.

Vascular graft infections and role of PET/CT in patients with persistent bacteraemia

Prosthetic vascular graft infection although a rare complication of vascular reconstruction surgery; has been associated with significant morbidity and mortality. The author presents two patients with prosthetic aortic graft presenting as fever and methicillin sensitive Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia without any other localising sign of infection. Both patients had a history of postoperative wound infection after their graft placement. Patients remained persistently bacteraemic on appropriate antimicrobial therapy making the clinician suspicious of a vascular graft infection. A [18 F] fluoro-2-deoxy-d glucose positron emission tomography associated to CT scan was used to identify the prosthetic vascular graft infection and since both patients were high-risk surgical candidates, a conservative medical approach was used. They were treated with 6 weeks of nafcillin and rifampin, followed by long-term doxycycline for suppression. This highlights the importance of considering vascular graft infection in patients with recurrent and persistent bacteraemia despite adequate therapy.

Varicella zoster virus encephalomyelitis as a late complication following haematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes the primary infection manifesting as varicella or chickenpox, with possibility of reactivation later in life. A 71-year-old man presented with headache and lower extremity weakness. There was no evidence of skin lesions to suggest a recent zoster infection. The patient had a history of multiple myeloma diagnosed 2 years earlier, treated with chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplant. Antimicrobial prophylaxis was discontinued 12 months after the transplant. MRI of the brain demonstrated areas of T2/fluid-attenuated inversion recovery hyperintensity in bilateral cerebral white matter and MRI of the spine demonstrated enhancement along the cauda equine. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis showed lymphocytic pleocytosis and VZV DNA was detected by PCR in the CSF. The patient was treated with 8 weeks of antiviral therapy with complete resolution of symptoms. VZV should be considered in patients with haematopoietic stem cell transplantation presenting with similar neurological manifestations even in the absence of dermatological signs.

Primary pulmonary lymphoma in a patient with advanced AIDS

Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) is an AIDS defining lesion and risk of NHL most likely correlates with the degree of immunosuppression from HIV. Risk of NHL is highest among patients with CD4 count <50 cells/mL. Primary pulmonary lymphoma (PPL) is an infrequent cause of AIDS-related lymphoma. The authors report a patient with advanced AIDS presenting with recurrent fever and pulmonary nodule seen on the CT scan. The patient remained febrile despite being on broad spectrum antibiotics with no clear source of infection. The patient underwent a bronchoscopy with biopsy of the pulmonary lesion which was most consistent with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. The patient was started on dose-adjusted etoposide, vincristine, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide and prednisone (EPOCH) and was noted to be afebrile and a repeat CT scan few weeks later showed resolution of her pulmonary nodule. This case highlights the importance of considering NHL in patients with advanced AIDS presenting with pulmonary nodule and fever.

Gemella morbillorum prosthetic aortic valve endocarditis

Gemella morbillorum is facultative anaerobic, Gram-positive cocci and are a commensal part of human flora. The reported patient in this case, with a prosthetic bovine aortic valve, presented with fever, poor dental hygiene, new cardiac murmur and signs of congestive heart failure. Blood cultures were positive for a viridans streptococcal species; however, the organism could not be further identified at our institution. Echocardiogram demonstrated a decrease in ejection fraction and vegetation attached to the prosthetic aortic valve associated with a perivalvular abscess. The patient was treated with a 6-week regimen of penicillin G with gentamicin for the first 2 weeks along with cardiac surgery. The results from the 16S rRNA gene sequencing of the viridans streptococcal species were available, which reported the organism as G. morbillorum. This case adds to the literature on G. morbillorum prosthetic valve endocarditis and provides additional evidence to consider infectious endocarditis in the setting of G. morbillorum bacteraemia.

HHV-6 encephalitis presenting as status epilepticus in an immunocompetent patient

Human herpes virus 6 (HHV-6) infections are frequently detected in patients with immunosuppressed transplant; however, reactivation in an immunocompetent patient is rarely reported. The author reports the case of a 65-year-old woman presenting with status epilepticus with foci in the temporal and occipital lobe and MRI suggestive of encephalitis in the parietal, occipital and temporal regions. The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis showed normal cell counts, protein and glucose levels and hence viral aetiologies were considered. The patient's workup returned positive for HHV-6 in serum as well as CSF. The patient responded well to a 21-day course of antivirals with complete resolution of her symptoms. This case highlights the importance of considering HHV-6 encephalitis even among immunocompetent patients presenting with encephalitis and having signs of temporal lobe involvement.

Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteraemia leading to the diagnosis of multiple myeloma

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a malignant plasma cell disorder characterised by the neoplastic proliferation of a single clone of plasma cells producing a monoclonal immunoglobulin. Anaemia, bone pain from lytic lesions, hypercalcaemia and renal failure are the most common presentations at diagnosis; however, the presence of infection at the time of diagnosis is rarely reported. The author reports an elderly male presenting with isolated fever and initial blood cultures positive for Streptococcus pneumoniae. Investigating the patient's underlying immunodeficient state predisposing him to this infection, serum and urine immunofixation electrophoresis identified monoclonal IgG λ and bone marrow biopsy revealed diffuse plasma cell infiltration that comprised 35% of the cellular elements, which were all consistent with MM. This case report highlights the importance of considering MM in asymptomatic elderly patients who present with acute pneumococcal infection without an apparent predisposing factor.

Rhodococcus equi pneumonia and sepsis in an allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplant recipient

Rhodococcus equi is an aerobic facultative intracellular organism that is known to infect cells of the macrophage-monocyte lineage. It is a common veterinary pathogen; however, the incidence of this infection in humans has risen and it has been recognised as an emerging opportunistic pathogen among the immunocompromised patients. We present the case of a patient with chronic myeloid leukaemia who had received allogenic stem cell transplant and presented to the hospital with clinical picture of pneumonia. Her condition worsened on initial broad spectrum antimicrobials and 3 weeks into her hospitalisation, R. equi was isolated from her broncheoalveolar lavage and blood cultures. Based on the susceptibility, therapy was changed to four active antimicrobials; however, the patient failed to improve and eventually died. This case highlights the importance of considering the diagnosis of R. equi among immunosuppressed patients early in the right clinical setting due to the high virulence associated with this organism.

Overwhelming Capnocytophaga canimorsus infection in a patient with asplenia

Patients with asplenia are prone to overwhelming infections due to encapsulated organisms. We report a 62-year-old man presenting with fever and weakness. His medical history was significant for splenectomy and owning a dog as pet. The patient on examination had evidence of animal bite and scratch marks on his lower extremity and developed dry gangrene of multiple digits of his upper extremity soon after admission. The patient's initial blood cultures were positive for Gram-negative rods, but no organism was identified. Capnocytophaga canimorsus was the suspected organism and the patient's antibiotics were tailored accordingly, with good clinical recovery. The patient' blood cultures finally grew C canimorsus on day 20 for which the patient had already been treated with prior clinical judgement. Physicians should be aware of this organism in the setting of sepsis in patients with asplenia and use appropriate antibiotics until further results are obtained.

Acquired haemophilia A initially diagnosed as angioedema

Acquired haemophilia (AH) is a bleeding diathesis caused by inhibitors to factor VIII. Patients developing AH may present with catastrophic bleeding episodes despite having no prior history of bleeding disorder. The authors report a patient with AH who presented with tongue swelling and was diagnosed with angioedema on presentation. However, the patient started bleeding spontaneously after presentation and was diagnosed with AH and the workup revealed haematoma of the tongue, which was the cause of tongue swelling. As previously reported in the literature, AH in this patient might have been precipitated secondary to exposure to an ear infection or exposure to the penicillin group of antibiotics. Laboratory examination was confirmatory for AH, which was appropriately treated with recombinant activated factor VIIa and immunosuppressive therapy with good outcomes. Understanding the pathophysiology of AH and appropriate management is important to prevent life-threatening bleeding.

ACE inhibitor-induced intestinal angio-oedema: rare adverse effect of a common drug

ACE inhibitors are the leading cause of drug-induced angio-oedema in the USA. ACE inhibitor-induced intestinal angio-oedema, a much rarer complication of this medication, has been reported. The author reports a patient presenting with a 1-day history of severe abdominal pain. The patient was started on lisinopril 2 days prior to this presentation. Computer axial tomography (CAT) scan of the abdomen demonstrated extensive and marked thickening, and oedema involving the duodenum and proximal jejunum associated with significant mesenteric oedema. Concerns for visceral angio-oedema and a possible association with lisinopril according to the Naranjo algorithm were raised. Lisinopril was discontinued and the patient was treated with antihistamines. The patient improved clinically in the next 24 h and discharged home with education and documentation of this serious allergy. ACE inhibitor-induced visceral angio-oedema is under-reported and most often missed resulting in waste of hospital resources towards working up this clinical diagnosis.

Acquired methaemoglobinaemia related to phenazopyridine ingestion

Methaemoglobin is an altered state of haemoglobin in which the ferrous ions of haeme are oxidised to the ferric state. This results in increased affinity to the bound oxygen and decreasing its availability to tissues. Most cases of methaemoglobinaemia are acquired, resulting from an increased methaemoglobin formation by various exogenous agents. The authors report an elderly patient presenting to the emergency department with a 1-month history of shortness of breath. Around the same time she had started using over-the-counter (OTC) phenazopyridine tablets for urinary symptoms. The patient was hypoxic and cyanotic; however, lacked evidence of hypoxaemia on the arterial blood gas. The presence of abnormal haemoglobin was suspected and confirmed by elevated levels of methaemoglobin. Phenazopyridine was proposed to be the likely aetiology of the methaemoglobinaemia, which the patient was not aware of. This case highlights the importance of always inquiring the OTC drug use especially in geriatric population.

Refractory calcinosis in a patient with dermatomyositis: response to intravenous immune globulin

Dermatomyositis is an inflammatory myopathy and commonly presents with progressive, symmetric proximal muscle weakness and cutaneous findings. Calcinosis is a severe manifestation that can be debilitating. The cutaneous manifestations of dermatomyositis may also develop in the absence of detectable muscle disease, and can persist after the successful treatment of myositis. The author reports a 30-year-old woman with biopsy-proven dermatomyositis who had failed previous trials of azathioprine and methotrexate. Her muscle weakness was controlled with mycophenolate mofetil and prednisone; however, she had recurrent attacks of painful calcinosis. The patient responded to intravenous immune globulin (IVIG) along with intravenous methylprednisone, followed by IVIG for 2 consecutive days each month. This regimen has been effective in preventing recurrence of her calcinosis. This case illustrates the cutaneous manifestation of dermatomyositis, which is often more refractory to treat as compared to the muscle involvement and require additional approaches such as IVIG.

Motor functioning in autistic spectrum disorders: a preliminary analysis

The study sought to identify differences in motor functioning between autism and Asperger syndrome while also assessing the diagnostic contribution of such assessment. A sample of 16 individuals with autism and 10 with Asperger syndrome completed the Dean-Woodcock Sensory-Motor Battery, and outcomes were compared. Significant differences were found in measures of cerebellar functioning, favoring Asperger subjects. Deficits in coordination, ambulation, and the Romberg test were associated with both disorders. On the basis of motor outcomes alone, 100% were accurately differentiated. Findings support the idea that motor dysfunction is a core feature of these presentations and demonstrated the utility of motor assessment in diagnostic practice.