Salivary Biomarkers of Stress, Anxiety and Depression

Stress, anxiety and depressive disorders are often characterized by the activation of the stress axis, which results in similar symptoms at some point in these disorders. These disorders are closely related to each other—they occur simultaneously or follow one another. The diagnosis of stress, anxiety and depression is not a perfect procedure currently—it is based on patient observation and an interview with the patient and their family. There are no laboratory tests that would dispel the doubts of the doctor making the diagnosis and allow the appropriate treatment to be implemented as soon as possible. Therefore, this study will review the components of saliva that could be helpful in the quick diagnosis of stress, anxiety and/or depression. Such potential salivary biomarkers could also be useful in monitoring the effectiveness of pharmacological treatment prescribed by a psychiatrist. The following are promising salivary biomarkers of stress, anxiety or depression: cortisol, immunoglobulin A (sIgA), lysozyme, melatonin, α-amylase (sAA), chromogranin A (CgA) and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2). To the best valuable potential salivary markers of stress, we can include cortisol, lysozyme, sAA and CgA. To differentiate depression from stress, salivary cortisol and melatonin can be helpful. Fluctuations in the concentrations of the above-mentioned substances in saliva indicate a particularly strong relationship with typical human psychological problems, such as stress, depression or anxiety.

Selected elements of extracellular matrix of the skin in diabetes and insulin resistance

PURPOSE

Reconstruction of the skin extracellular matrix is a physiological phenomenon occurring on a continuous basis. The aim of this study is to evaluate the content of basic enzymes preventing oxidative stress: superoxide dismutase 2 and 3 as well as catalase, the content of hyaluronic acid, and the activity of N-acetyl-β-d-hexosaminidase and β-d-glucuronidase in the skin of rats used as animal models of diabetes and insulin resistance, before and after the treatment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted on a group of sexually mature male Wistar rats divided into 7 groups of 10 animals. Insulin resistance was induced by feeding the rats with a high-fat diet, and diabetes was induced by a single injection of streptozotocin. Chosen groups of rats were treated with insulin or metformin. After 8 weeks, we excised a fragment of shaved dorsal skin from anesthetized rats in each group.

RESULTS

In the course of diabetes and insulin resistance, an intensified defensive activity of cells against the oxidative stress was observed in the undamaged skin, expressed by an increase in the relative content of superoxide dismutase 2 and 3, catalase and the activity of N-acetyl-β-d-hexosaminidase and β-d-glucuronidase. Diabetes and insulin resistance cause similar skin damage, as there are no differences in the relative contents or specific activities of the examined parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

Insulin and metformin improve the quality of the skin in rats with diabetes and insulin resistance, by restoring the content of hyaluronic acid to the healthy skin level.

Human saliva as a diagnostic material

Today blood biochemical laboratory tests are essential elements to the diagnosis and monitoring of the treatment of diseases. However, many researchers have suggested saliva as an preferable diagnostic material. The collection of saliva is simple, painless, cheap and safe, both for patients and medical staff. An additional advantage of saliva is the fact that it may be retrieved several times a day, which makes repeat analysis much easier. Furthermore, saliva has very high durability. Although 94-99% of salivary content is water, saliva also contains numerous cellular elements and many organic and inorganic substances, including most biological markers present in the blood and urine that may be used in the early detection and monitoring of many dental and general diseases.

Orthodontic treatment modifies the oxidant-antioxidant balance in saliva of clinically healthy subjects

PURPOSE

The aim of our study was to analyse salivary markers of oxidative stress and an antioxidant response in clinically healthy subjects with fixed orthodontic appliances.

MATERIAL/METHODS

37 volunteers were included in the study. Unstimulated (UWS) and stimulated (SWS) whole saliva were analysed for oxidative and antioxidant status and nickel levels immediately before the insertion of the appliances, an one week after and twenty four weeks after the insertion of fixed appliances.

RESULTS

A significant increase in tiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) and total oxidant status (TOS) one week, and total protein concentration twenty four weeks after the attachment of orthodontic appliances was found in the saliva. The markers of antioxidant status: superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), uric acid (UA), peroxidase (Px), and total antioxidant status (TAS) were not changed in all periods in UWS. In SWS a significant decrease in SOD1 and CAT was found whereas Px was increased one week after treatment and UA twenty four weeks following treatment. TAS was decreased in UWS and SWS twenty four weeks after orthodontic treatment. Oxidative status index (OSI) was elevated both in UWS and SWS one week after orthodontic treatment in comparison to the results obtained before and twenty four weeks. One week after treatment an increased concentration of nickel was also observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Orthodontic treatment modifies the oxidative-antioxidative balance in the saliva of clinically healthy subjects. Increased nickel concentration in saliva, released from orthodontic appliances, seems to be responsible for changes in the oxidative status of the saliva.

Oxidative Modification in the Salivary Glands of High Fat-Diet Induced Insulin Resistant Rats

Still little is known about the role of oxidative stress (OS) in the pathogenesis of the salivary gland dysfunction in the course of insulin resistance (IR). To induce IR rats was fed with a high fat diet (HFD) during 8 weeks. Stimulated and non-stimulated salivary flow rate, total protein, as well as oxidative damage markers: 4-HNE protein adduct, 8-isoprostanes (8-isoP), 8-hydroxy-D-guanosine (8-OHdG), advanced oxidation protein product (AOPP), and protein carbonyls (PC) were determined in the plasma and submandibular and parotid glands of IR and control rats. We have shown a significant decrease (45%) of the stimulated salivary flow rate, and in the total protein concentration in the parotid (35%) and submandibular (10%) glands of HFD IR as compared to the control rats. The level of 4-HNE protein adduct (15%) and 8-isoP (20%) in the submandibular glands of IR rats as well as total level of 4-HNE protein adduct (39%), 8-isoP (27%), AOPP (25%), PC (32%), and 8-OHdG (18%) in the parotid glands of IR rats were significantly higher as compared to the control group. We showed no correlation between the assessed OS parameters in the plasma and salivary glands. However, the redox balance in both glands shifted toward the oxidative status, parotid glands of IR rats are exposed to greater intensity OS. Stimulated secretory ability and mechanisms involved in the synthesis/secretion of proteins in the salivary glands are depressed in the course of IR. Oxidative damage in the salivary glands arises independently from the general OS in the course of insulin resistance induced by a high fat diet.

Lysosomal Exoglycosidase Profile and Secretory Function in the Salivary Glands of Rats with Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes

Before this study, there had been no research evaluating the relationship between a lysosomal exoglycosidase profile and secretory function in the salivary glands of rats with streptozotocin- (STZ-) induced type 1 diabetes. In our work, rats were divided into 4 groups of 8 animals each: control groups (C2, C4) and diabetic groups (STZ2, STZ4). The secretory function of salivary glands-nonstimulated and stimulated salivary flow, α-amylase, total protein-and salivary exoglycosidase activities-N-acetyl-β-hexosaminidase (HEX, HEX A, and HEX B), β-glucuronidase, α-fucosidase, β-galactosidase, and α-mannosidase-was estimated both in the parotid and submandibular glands of STZ-diabetic and control rats. The study has demonstrated that the activity of most salivary exoglycosidases is significantly higher in the parotid and submandibular glands of STZ-diabetic rats as compared to the healthy controls and that it increases as the disease progresses. Reduced secretory function of diabetic salivary glands was also observed. A significant inverse correlation between HEX B, α-amylase activity, and stimulated salivary flow in diabetic parotid gland has also been shown. Summarizing, STZ-induced diabetes leads to a change in the lysosomal exoglycosidase profile and reduced function of the salivary glands.

The Significance of Matrix Metalloproteinases in Oral Diseases

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) belong to a family of structurally related zinc-dependent proteolytic enzymes that are known to play a key role in the catabolic turnover of extracellular matrix (ECM) components. Research studies to date have indicated that MMPs regulate the activity of several non-ECM bioactive substrates, including growth factors, cytokines, chemokines and cell receptors, which determine the tissue microenvironment. Disruption of the balance between the concentration of active matalloproteinases and their inhibitors (TIMPs) may lead to pathological changes associated with uncontrolled ECM turnover, tissue remodeling, inflammatory response, cell growth and migration. This brief review presents some information on MMPs' role in inflammatory, metabolic and cancer abnormalities related to the salivary glands, as well as MMP-related aspects that lead to the formation of human dentinal caries lesions. In oral diseases, the most relevant biological fluid commonly used for diagnosing periodontal diseases is saliva. In diseased patients with significantly higher levels of MMPs in their saliva than healthy people, most extracellular matrix components undergo digestion to lower molecular weight forms. Conventional treatment successfully reduces the levels of MMPs inhibits the progressive breakdown of gingival and periodontal ligament collagens. Beside inflammatory abnormalities like Sjögren's syndrome (SS), a large group of disorders is comprised of cancers, most of them involving the parotid gland.

Insulin Resistance and Obesity Affect Lipid Profile in the Salivary Glands

In today's world wrong nutritional habits together with a low level of physical activity have given rise to the development of obesity and its comorbidity, insulin resistance. More specifically, many researches indicate that lipids are vitally involved in the onset of a peripheral tissue (e.g., skeletal muscle, heart, and liver) insulin resistance. Moreover, it seems that diabetes can also induce changes in respect of lipid composition of both the salivary glands and saliva. However, judging by the number of research articles, the salivary glands lipid profile still has not been sufficiently explored. In the current study we aim to assess the changes in the main lipid fractions, namely, triacylglycerols, phospholipids, free fatty acids, and diacylglycerols, in the parotid and the submandibular salivary glands of rats exposed to a 5-week high fat diet regimen. We observed that the high caloric fat diet caused a significant change in the salivary glands lipid composition, especially with respect to PH and TG, but not DAG or FFAs, classes. The observed reduction in PH concentration is an interesting phenomenon frequently signifying the atrophy and malfunctions in the saliva secreting organs. On the other hand, the increased accumulation of TG in the glands may be an important clinical manifestation of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Oxidative Damage to the Salivary Glands of Rats with Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes-Temporal Study: Oxidative Stress and Diabetic Salivary Glands

Objective. This study evaluated oxidative damage caused to the salivary glands in streptozotocin-induced diabetes (DM). Materials and Methods. Rats were divided into 4 groups: groups 1 and 2, control rats, and groups 3 and 4, DM rats. 8-Hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), protein carbonyl (PC), 4-hydroxynonenal protein adduct (4-HNE), oxidized and/or MDA-modified LDL-cholesterol (oxy-LDL/MDA), 8-isoprostanes (8-isoP), and oxidative stress index (OSI) were measured at 7 (groups 1 and 3) and 14 (groups 2 and 4) days of experiment. Results. The unstimulated salivary flow in DM rats was reduced in the 2nd week, while the stimulated flow was decreased throughout the duration of the experiment versus control. OSI was elevated in both diabetic glands in the 1st and 2nd week, whereas 8-isoP and 8-OHdG were higher only in the parotid gland in the second week. PC and 4-HNE were increased in the 1st and 2nd week, whereas oxy-LDL/MDA was increased in the 2nd week in the diabetic parotid glands. Conclusions. Diabetes induces oxidative damage of the salivary glands, which seems to be caused by processes taking place in the salivary glands, independently of general oxidative stress. The parotid glands are more vulnerable to oxidative damage in these conditions.

Impact of morbid obesity and bariatric surgery on antioxidant/oxidant balance of the unstimulated and stimulated human saliva

OBJECTIVE

There is no study evaluating the influence of morbid obesity and bariatric surgery on antioxidant/oxidant homeostasis of the unstimulated and stimulated human saliva.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Salivary flow rate, total antioxidant status (TAS), total oxidant status (TOS), oxidative status index (OSI), the total amount of uric acid (UA), polyphenols (pPh), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2), specific activity of peroxidase (Px), as well as malondialdehyde (MDA), and advanced glycation end products (AGE) concentrations were determined in the unstimulated (UWS) and stimulated (SWS) whole saliva of patients with morbid obesity before and after bariatric surgery.

RESULTS

In both UWS and SWS, the total amount of TOS, OSI, SOD2, and MDA was statistically higher in patients with morbid obesity as compared to the healthy controls, as well as significantly lower in the patients treated surgically as compared to the obese patients. The median values of the total amount of TAS, CAT, UA, pPh, and specific activity of Px were significantly reduced in UWS and SWS in patients with morbid obesity as compared to the control group and also statistically elevated in patients after bariatric surgery as compared to the patients with morbid obesity.

CONCLUSIONS

In morbid obesity, reduced unstimulated and stimulated salivary flow can be observed. Bariatric surgery restored only unstimulated salivary flow to normal values. Disturbances in oxidant/antioxidant homeostasis may be observed in UWS and SWS of obese patients before and after treatment.

The skin remodeling in type 1 diabetes and insulin resistance animal models

The skin matrix metalloproteinase 3, tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinase 2 and collagen III content changes in type 1 diabetes and insulin resistance treated with insulin and metformin were studied. Healthy adult male Wistar rats were obtained from experimental animal house, Department of Experimental Pharmacology, Medical University in Bialystok. The rats were divided randomly into five groups of 8 rats each. Control rats were injected intraperitoneally by NaCl. Type IDDM was induced by a single injection of Streptozocin. Insulin resistance was induced by a high-fat diet. The chosen groups of rats were also treated with insulin or metformin. ELISA Kits (USCN Life Science, China) were used to measure content of matrix metallo-proteinase 3 (ELISA Kit for Matrix Metalloproteinase 3 - MMP3), tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (ELISA Kit for Tissue Inhibitors of Metalloproteinase 2 - TIMP2) and content of collagen type 3 (ELISA Kit for Collagen Type III - COL3). The results were reported as a median. The statistical significance was defined as p<0.05. Type 1 diabetes and insulin resistance have significantly reduced the quality of the skin, shown by the increase in content of matrix metalloproteinase 3 and the decrease in content of tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinase 2. Type 1 diabetes and insulin resistance have reduced the quality of the skin expressed by type III collagen content decrease but for future studies it is recommend to determine rat interstitial collagenase, MMP-13, as well. Insulin and metformin treatment improved the quality of the diabetic skin, demonstrated by the type III collagen content increase.

Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of CART-containing cells in adrenal glands of male rats with hypertension

Adrenal activity is stimulated and secretion of stress hormones is increased during advanced stages of renovascular hypertension. The literature suggests that the neuropeptide, cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript (CART), might regulate adrenal secretory function and thus could influence its activity. We assessed potential quantitative and qualitative changes in the cells that contained CART in the adrenal glands of rats with renovascular hypertension. The renal arteries of ten rats were subjected to a clipping procedure, i.e., two-kidney one-clip (2K1C) model of arterial hypertension, and after 6 weeks each rat developed stable hypertension. CART was localized using immunohistochemistry. CART was detected in a large population of cells in the medulla, sparse nerve fibers in the cortex and the capsule of the adrenal gland. The population of CART-positive cells in adrenal glands of two kidney-one clip (2K1C) treated rats was greater and their immunoreactivity was increased compared to controls. Similarly, the length, width, area and diameter of CART-immunoreactive cells were significantly greater in the hypertensive rats than in controls. We demonstrated that renovascular hypertension alters the number and immunoreactivity of CART-containing cells in adrenal glands.

[Influence of diabetes on mechanics efficiency of pregnant women's feet end risk of diabetic foot]

A foot is a complicated osteoarticular system. The complex structure and variability predispose it to the formation of foot deformity. The cause deformities of the feet are weakened muscle tissue and ligaments, systemic diseases: obesity, musculoskeletal defects, neurological diseases, rheumatism, diabetes, pregnancy, improper shoes or socks. They interfere with the function of the foot and are reflected in the distribution of support points. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of diabetes on pregnancy and the mechanics of the foot and the risk of developing diabetic foot.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study took part in healthy and diseased women with type 1 diabetes in pregnancy. Evaluation of static foot was performed using podoscope, made up of mirrors, lights and camera. The camera described the distribution of the pressure on the glass plate, which the person being investigated was standing on. It recorded the reflection of feet and transmit them to a computer. Description the results consisted of defining relevant indicators. The evaluation was performed using the dynamic pressure Parotec system, the measuring cylinder placed inside the patient's shoe provided with sensors recording the foot pressure distribution on the ground while standing and walking. The data were stored on a memory card loaded into the computer, where the analysis took place. It has been calculated the average values of pressures exerted on the various zones of the foot.

RESULTS

It was found that the increase in body weight resulting from the advancement of women pregnancy increases the load exerted on the foot. Forces are growing in subsequent trimesters of pregnancy reaching a maximum at the end of the third trimester. The longitudinal and transverse arches of the foot are reducing. After the birth, the pressure exerted on each area of the foot decreases, arches of the foot are getting back to starting position.

CONCLUSIONS

Number of foot deformities is higher in women with type 1 diabetes. It grow the risk of developing diabetic foot syndrome.

Determination of lysosomal exoglycosidases in human saliva

BACKGROUND

Currently we observe a growing interest in human saliva as a non-invasive material for diagnosis and monitoring of general and oral diseases.

METHODS

The aim of our study was adaptation of the Marciniak et al. (Marciniak J, Zalewska A, Popko J, Zwierz K, 2006, Clin Chem Lab Med 44: 933-937) method for determination of HEX and GLU activity in synovial fluid, and for determination of: HEX and GLU, as well as MAN, GAL, and FUC activity in human saliva.

RESULTS

Under optimal conditions, 10 μl of saliva for HEX, and 30 μl for GLU, MAN, GAL and FUC, were sufficient for determination of human salivary exoglycosidases activity with variation coefficient ranging from 0.89 for GLU to 0.99 for GAL.

CONCLUSION

The adapted method for exoglycosidases activity determination in human saliva is sufficiently sensitive and precise to use in clinical diagnosis.

Determination of lysosomal exoglycosidases in human saliva

Currently we observe a growing interest in human saliva as a non-invasive material for diagnosis and monitoring of general and oral diseases. The aim of our study was adaptation of the Marciniak et al. (Marciniak J, Zalewska A, Popko J, Zwierz K, 2006, Clin Chem Lab Med 44: 933-937) method for determination of HEX and GLU activity in synovial fluid, and for determination of: HEX and GLU, as well as MAN, GAL, and FUC activity in human saliva. Under optimal conditions, 10 μl of saliva for HEX, and 30 μl for GLU, MAN, GAL and FUC, were sufficient for determination of human salivary exoglycosidases activity with variation coefficient ranging from 0.89 for GLU to 0.99 for GAL. The adapted method for exoglycosidases activity determination in human saliva is sufficiently sensitive and precise to use in clinical diagnosis.

[Diabetes mellitus-related oxidative stress and its parameters in saliva]

The uncontrolled accumulation of glucose and fatty acids in the human body without the possibility of any cells utilizing them as metabolic substrates is a typical occurrence in the process of diabetes mellitus. High concentration of mentioned substances leads to oxidative stress and that reasons in numerous complications as a result of diabetes which are often demonstrated in the oral cavity as periodontal inflammations. There are many ways to study the biomarkers of oxidative stress such as: superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, glutathione, vitamins, lipid peroxidation, concentration of nitrites, non-enzymatic glycosylation of proteins and hyperglycaemia in diabetes. Considering the attainability and simplicity required to collect, saliva is a popular research material used to test these biomarkers.

Salivary innate defense system in type 1 diabetes mellitus in children with mixed and permanent dentition

OBJECTIVE

It should be expected that type 1 diabetes mellitus may disturb innate and acquired immunity. There are no data on type 1 diabetes mellitus-related changes in the salivary flow and the protein output responsible for the innate immunity of saliva depending on the quality of dentition reflecting the age of child. The aim of this work was the evaluation of parameters responsible for the innate immunity of saliva in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In diabetic children, adolescent and healthy volunteers, the salivary flow, the output and the concentration of the activity of peroxidase (colorimetry), lysozyme (radial immunodiffusion) and lactoferrin (ELISA) were determined.

RESULTS

In children with mixed and permanent dentition, type 1 diabetes mellitus significantly decreases (as compared with the appropriate controls) the unstimulated salivary flow, the output, concentration of peroxidase and the output of the lysozyme and lactoferrin.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it may be stated that type 1 diabetes mellitus causes functional changes in the salivary glands, resulting in a decrease of the salivary flow and weakening of the salivary innate defense system, thus creating a threat to the oral and general health of type 1 diabetes mellitus children. The results showed that the salivary glands of younger children, when compared to adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus, are more susceptible to the injurious effects of the disease.

Antioxidant profile of salivary glands in high fat diet-induced insulin resistance rats

OBJECTIVE

There is no study analyzing the salivary antioxidant profile in the course of the insulin resistance.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rats were divided into two groups. One group was fed with a normal diet, another one with a high fat diet for 5 weeks. The analysis included: catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase, peroxidase activities, uric acid, and total antioxidant status concentrations.

RESULTS

The activity of peroxidase in both kind of glands of insulin resistance rats was significantly reduced than in the control rats. The protein concentration, total amount of total antioxidant status in the parotid glands of insulin resistance rats were significantly lower than in the control glands The total amount of superoxide dismutase, CAT, and uric acid in the parotid glands of insulin resistance rats were significantly elevated in comparison with the control rats. The median values of the total amount of superoxide dismutase, CAT, peroxidase, total antioxidant status were significantly higher in the parotid than in the submandibular glands of the insulin resistance and control rats.

CONCLUSION

Parotid and submandibular glands of rats react differently when exposed to insulin resistance condition; however, the parotid glands seem to be more affected. The main source of antioxidants is parotid glands of rats.

The unwounded skin remodeling in animal models of diabetes types 1 and 2

Diabetes mellitus types 1 and 2 are chronic diseases that cause serious health complications, including dermatologic problems. The diabetic skin is characterized by disturbances in collagen metabolism. A tissue remodeling depends on the degradation of extracellular matrix through the matrix metalloproteinases, which are regulated by e.g. the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases. The balance between matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs) is essential to maintain homeostasis in the skin. The aim of this study was to determine the concentration of metalloproteinase 2, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 3 and the concentration of collagen type 1 in unwounded skin of diabetes type 1 and 2 and healthy controls. The treatment of diabetes resulted in a significant decrease of MMP2, increase of TIMP3 and COL1 concentrations in the skin as compared to the untreated diabetic skin. The concentrations of MMP2 in the skin of treated rats did not show significant differences from the healthy control group. TIMP3 concentrations in the skin of treated rats are not returned to the level observed in the control group. Disturbances of the extracellular matrix of the skin are similar in diabetes type 1 and 2. Application of insulin in diabetes therapy more preferably affects the extracellular matrix homeostasis of the skin.

Salivary lysosomal exoglycosidases profiles in patients with insulin-dependent and noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

In this study we have investigated the effects of type I (insulin-dependent) and II (non-insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus on the specific activity and the output of salivary exoglycosidases: N-acetyl-β-hexosoaminidase (HEX), and its isoenzymes A and B (HEX A, HEX B), and β-glucuronidase (GLU) in well controlled diabetic patients compared to healthy age-matched controls.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In the saliva HEX, HEX A, HEX B and GLU were determined according to Marciniak et al. Protein was determined by the Lowry et al. method.

RESULTS

Our results show that in the case of type I diabetes, the significantly increased activity of salivary total HEX is mainly due to the significantly increased HEX A specific activity. Significantly increased HEX specific activity in DM II is an outcome of significantly increased HEX A as well as HEX B specific activities in comparison to the appropriate healthy control. Our results showed a significant increase in the specific activity of GLU in saliva of type II diabetes patients. The output of lysosomal exoglycosidases showed a similar significant increase compared to the healthy control, in both groups of diabetes mellitus patients.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has demonstrated that non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus more strongly modify salivary glands glycoconjugates catabolism, which can be attributed to functional and morphological changes. A significant increase in the outputs of exoglycosidases in saliva of both type diabetes patients once more indicates that special attention should be paid to the oral health of these patients.

Lysosomal exoglycosidases in nasal polyps

INTRODUCTION

Nasal polyps are smooth outgrowths assuming a shape of grapes, formed from the nasal mucosa, limiting air flow by projecting into a lumen of a nasal cavity. Up to now the surgical resection is the best method of their treatment, but etiology and pathogenesis of the nasal polyps is not yet fully established.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study was the assessment of the selected lysosomal exoglycosidases activity in the nasal polyps. In this study the activity of β-galactosidase, α-mannosidase and α-fucosidase was determined in the tissue of the nasal polyps obtained from 40 patients (10F, 30M) and control tissues derived from mucosa of lower nasal conchas obtained during mucotomy from 20 patients (10F, 10M).

RESULTS

We observed significant lower values of GAL, FUC and tendency to decrease of MAN and GLU concentration in nasal polyps (P) in comparison to control healthy nasal mucosa (C). In nasal polyp tissue (P) no differences of GAL, MAN and FUC specific activity in comparison to control mucosa (C) were found.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research supports bioelectrical theory of the nasal polyps pathogenesis and directs attention at research on glycoconjugates and glycosidases of the nasal mucosa extracellular matrix.

The importance and perspective of plant-based squalene in cosmetology

Squalene is a highly unsaturated hydrocarbon from triterpenoid family, discovered as a major component of the liver oil of certain varieties of deep sea sharks. In the interest of protecting biodiversity, raw materials of animal origin must be replaced by alternative sources that respect our environment. Squalene is widely present as a component of the unsaponifiable fraction of vegetable oils (i.e., olive oil, amaranth oil). Amaranth oil seems to be the key source of squalene. Amaranth grains contains 7-7.7% lipids, and these lipids are extremely valuable because of the presence of ingredients like squalene, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamin E as tocopherols, tocotrienols, and phytosterols, which are not seen together in other common oils. In human skin physiology, squalene is not only used as an antioxidant, moisturizer, and material for topically applied vehicle, but is also used in treating skin disorders like seborrheic dermatitis, acne, psoriasis, or atopic dermatitis. Further studies on alternative sources are needed to explore the utility of squalene for treating skin.

A lack of correlation between mast cells, angiogenesis, and outcome in non-small cell lung cancer

Although a direct association between mast cells and cancer tumors is generally accepted, the exact nature of this relationship appears contradictory. The aim of this study was to clarify the effect of mast cells on tumor angiogenesis and outcome in Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. The tissue specimens evaluated were from patients with NSCLC who had undergone resection with curative intent at the Medical University of Bialystok Hospital. Of the 90 patients studied, 67 were men. Average age at surgery was 59.68 years. Study population included 29 cases of adenocarcinoma, 44 cases of squamous cell carcinoma, and 17 cases of large cell carcinoma. The authors counted mast cells and microvessels in tumor sections. Mast cells were observed in small groups around vessels and in the cancer parenchyma. At a magnification of 200×, the number of mast cells was 28.90 ± 16.6. Intramural microvessels in endothelial cells were found in small groups, mostly at the margin. At a magnification of 200×, the number of microvessels was 221.69 ± 120.36. Spearman correlation was observed in patients with adenocarcinoma, and also in patients with stage II disease. This study did not show correlation between mast cells count and survival rate, and correlation between microvessel count and survival rate. In this study, mast cells infiltration of the tumor islets was not associated with patients' survival. The authors did not find correlation between mast cells count and angiogenesis, except only in patients with adenocarcinoma, and in patients with stage II disease.

Colon cancer releases alpha-tocopherol from its O-glycosides better than normal colon tissue

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Free radicals, in a colon, may damage DNA, make difficult DNA repair and change course of post-translational modifications of regulatory proteins, which promote tumor initiation and progression. Therefore risk of colon cancer is closely related to diet and other lifestyle factors. Dietary antioxidants, such as vitamin E, should reduce the levels of harmful oxidation products. However vitamin E is not soluble in water, which decreases its bioavailability. As O-glycosides of alpha-tocopherol are better soluble in water and penetrate to tissues easier than free alpha-tocopherol, the aim of our work was to investigate the rate of release the free tocopherol from its O-glycosides in colon cancer, in comparison to human healthy colon tissue.

METHODOLOGY

The activities of enzymes catalysing hydrolysis of alpha-tocopheryl glucoside (1a) and mannoside (1b) as well as p-nitrophenyl beta-glucoside (2a) and mannoside (2b) in cancer and healthy human colon tissues, were determined according to the modified method described by Zwierz et al.

RESULTS

The alpha-tocopherol and p-nitrophenol were significantly better released from the respective glucosides and mannosides in cancer tissue than in "healthy" human colon tissues, with p = 0.000947 for la, p = 0.033024 for 1b; p = 0.0028 for 2a, and p = 0.0033 for 2b, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Alpha-tocopherol and p-nitrophenol are released from the O-glycosides of glucose and mannose in significantly higher amount in colon cancer than in healthy tissues. The alpha-tocopherol O-glycosides can be considered as prodrugs in prevention and treatment of the colon cancer.

Decomposition of α-Tocopheryl Glycosides in Rat Tissues

Background

The aim of our investigation was to estimate the stability of α-tocopheryl O-glycosides in relation to activity of exoglycosidases in selected rat tissues.

Material and Methods

Acetylated glycosides were obtained in glucosidation of α-tocopherol using the Helferich method. The activity of exoglycosidases was determined by the Zwierz et al. method. Protein concentrations were determined by the biuret method. The concentration of released α-tocopherol was determined with the HPLC method.

Results

The comparison of the amount of released α-tocopherol with the amount of released p-nitrophenol shows that glycoside bound in 2a–5a derivatives of α-tocopherol undergoes hydrolysis significantly harder than in appropriate 2b–5bp-nitrophenyl derivatives.

Conclusion

The results indicate that tocopheryl O-glycosides are more resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis than appropriate p-nitrophenol O-glycosides 2a–5a. Among examined tocopheryl O-glycosides, galactoside 4 is the only compound that caused the significant increase in tocopherol concentration, as compared to its endogenic content.

Statistical evaluation of the isoform patterns of N-acetyl-beta-hexosaminidase from human renal cancer tissue separated by isoelectrofocusing

OBJECTIVES

Isoenzymes of HEX from human renal carcinoma and neighbouring macroscopically normal renal tissue can show different patterns on isoelectrofocusing gels. The aim of our work was to elaborate the method for statistical evaluation of differences.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Isoenzymes of N-acetyl-beta-hexosaminidase were separated from renal (control and cancerous) tissues of 15 patients. Isoenzymes were electrofocused in Multiphor II, with ampholine pH 3.5-9.0 (2%) and then evaluated densitometrically and analysed statistically.

RESULTS

A similar pattern in activity of isoforms of isoenzymes A and B in normal and cancerous renal tissue was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed method of statistical evaluation of differences in isoforms of N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase can also be adapted to estimate the isoforms of other enzymes in different tissues.

Activity of lysosomal exoglycosidases in saliva of patients with HIV infection

PURPOSE

The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of HIV infection on the catabolism of glycoconjugates in the oral cavity, by determination of the activity of lysosomal exoglycosidases in mixed saliva.

METHOD

The specific activities of the following exoglycosidases were tested: N-acetyl-beta-hexosaminidase (HEX), its isoenzymes A (HEX-A) and B (HEX-B), alpha-mannosidase (MAN), beta-galactosidase (GAL) and alpha-fucosidase (FUC).

RESULT

A significant increase of activity of HEX-A, GAL and FUC, and a significant decrease of the activity of HEX-B was found, but no significant changes in the HEX and MAN activity we noted.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that following HIV infection, there is probably an increased rate of catabolism of glycoconjugates in saliva resulting from changes in the proportions of the activity of isoenzymes A and B of N-acetyl-beta-hexosaminidase, beta-galactosidase and alpha-fucosidase. An increase of HEXA activity can implicate the beginning of neoplastic changes developing in the oral cavity.

Assessment of salivary levels of the chosen exoglycosidases in patients with aggressive periodontitis after treatment with doxycycline

PURPOSE

The aim of the study was the clinical assessment of the periodontium in patients with aggressive periodontitis (AP) after treatment with doxycycline hyclate. Moreover, an attempt was made to evaluate the effect of the treatment on the salivary concentrations of beta-glucuronidase, HEX, HEX A and HEX B in AP patients.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Sixteen patients with aggressive periodontitis, aged 28-45 years, were enrolled in the study. The patients were treated with a doxycycline hyclate preparation (Periostat) for 2 months at a dose of 20 mg twice a day. The clinical examination was performed twice, directly prior to pharmacological treatment and after its termination. The following clinical parameters were evaluated: the plaque index (PI), the sulcus bleeding index (SBI), the pocket probing depth (PPD) and the clinical attachment level (CAL). Biochemical determination of beta-glucuronidase, HEX, HEX A and HEX B concentrations in non-stimulated saliva was performed before and after treatment.

RESULTS

In AP patients, the values of PI, SBI and CAL before and after treatment were comparable. The mean pocket probing depth before treatment was 3.5 mm, which decreased significantly after treatment (3.2 mm). The values expressed as pKat/kg protein for specific enzymatic activities of HEX, HEX A, HEX B and beta-glucuronidase in the saliva of AP patients before and after doxycycline treatment were similar.

CONCLUSIONS

A 2-month treatment with doxycycline is too short to obtain clinical changes. Although the assessment of the activity of such enzymes as beta-glucuronidase, HEX, HEX A and HEX B in the saliva of AP patients allows detection of periodontal inflammation, it cannot be used to determine the risk of its development and therefore has no practical significance.

[Usefulness of detecting cancer procoagulant activity and thyrotropic hormone concentration in the differentiation of tumor-like changes in the thyroid]

Epidemiological studies have shown the increased incidence of malignant cancer of the thyroid gland observed in the last decade. This increase is connected with the elevated number of benign tumor-like/tuberous changes in the thyroid gland. Since it is difficult to differentiate diagnostically this pathology, it would be justified to search for biochemical markers which can help to confirm this change. The aim of our study was to evaluate the usefulness of detecting cancer procoagulant activity (CP) and thyrotropic hormone concentration (TSH) in the differentiation of tumor-like changes in the thyroid gland. The study included 15 patients (12 women and 3 men) with adenoma glandulae thyreoideae or nodular changes in the character of struma nodosa hyperplastica and 12 patients (11 women and 1 man) with carcinoma glandulae thyreoideae. A control group consisted of 12 healthy people (5 women and 7 men). CP activity was determined in the serum by the coagulation method according to Gordon and Benson and it was expressed as the coagulation time in seconds (s). TSH concentration was measured by the immunoenzymatic method (MEIA) using an analyzer of Axsym (Abbott) and was expressed in microU/ml. The results of our study indicate that the determination of CP activity can be used in the differential diagnosis of tumor-like changes of the thyroid gland. The concentration ofTSH was within the normal values, despite statistically different mean values between particular groups that results from the fact that patients qualified to surgery were in the state of euthyreosis.

Activity of lysosomal exoglycosidases in saliva of patients with HIV infection

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of HIV infection on the catabolism of glycoconjugates in oral cavity, by determination the activity of lysosomal exoglycosidases in resting whole saliva HIV positive patients.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Sample of resting whole saliva from HIV infected patients (divided into two groups, depending on lymphocyte CD4+ number in peripheral blood) and the control-HIV negative group were analyzed for exoglycosidases activity. Determinations the activities (muKat/kg of protein) of lysosomal exoglycosidases were performed according to Chatteriee et al., modified Zwierz et al. The protein content (mg/ml) was determined by the Lowry method. Statistical analysis was performed using packet Statistica 6.0. Results were expressed as the mean and SD. P values less than 0.05 were considered significant.

RESULTS

Exoglycosidases activities were not statistically dependent on immunological status of HIV patients. We obtained insignificant increase activities of HEX, HEX A and GALp and insignificant decrease activity of HEX B along with the reduction of the CD4+ number. In both HIV positive groups the activities of HEX B were statistically lower and GALp statistically higher in comparison to the control. In the case of HEX A significant differences could be observed between patients with low immunological status and the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

HIV infection intensifies catabolism glycoconiugates in saliva and changes activities of HEX, its isoenzymes A and B and beta-galactosidase. It may change susceptibility the cells lining oral cavity to viral and bacterial infections.

[Biochemistry of hepatic encephalopathy]

Authors discuss pathogenesis and biochemistry of hepatic encephalopathy in the course of acute hepatic failure and hepatic cirrhosis.

[Activity of N-acetylo-beta-hexosamninidase in joint fluid from knee and serum of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis]

N-acetyl-beta-hexosoaminidase (Hex) is a lysosomal enzyme which releases N-acetylaminohexose from non reducing end of glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins and glycolipids, taking part in degradation of these substances. It is not known what role Hex plays in the degradation of joints in rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. The aim of our work was evaluation of Hex activity in synovial fluid and serum of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. The investigation was performed on material taken from 28 patients with rheumatoid arthritis aged 22-74 years with III or IV stage of disease and 26 patients with osteo-arthritis aged 41-75 years. The synovial fluid was collected from the knee joint during puncture. Hex activity was also determined in serum of healthy people at the age 25-40 years which constitute a control group. Hex activity was determined by the method of Chatterjee et al. modified by Zwierz et al. The concentration of Hex activity in synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis was 15.2 nmol/ml/min and 3-4 times excedeed the serum value in these patients. In osteoarthrosis patients Hex concentration in synovial fluid was 6.15 nmol/ml/min. In serum of all investigated groups, concentration of Hex activity was 4.0-4.7 nml/ml/min. The specific activity of Hex (calculated as a constant amount of protein) in synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis was significantly higher than in serum of these persons (p<0.017 and 0.014 respectively).

The cleavage of vitamin E galactoside in the rat tissue homogenates

The stability of alpha-tocopheryl beta-galactoside in the presence of endogenous galactosidases in selected tissue homogenates (liver, kidney, ileum and brain) was estimated. High degree release of alpha-tocopherol from alpha-tocopheryl beta-galactoside in tissues of ileum, kidney and brain was observed (82%, 75% and 72%, increase above endogenous alpha-tocopherol, respectively). A possible enzymatic mechanism of the galactoside decomposition was proposed.

[Non mucin proteins of saliva with high homology of polypeptide chains]

To non mucin proteins of human saliva belong: cystatins, statherin, histatins and acidic proline-rich protein. These saliva proteins influence hard and soft tissues by forming a pellicle layer on oral mucosa and enamel, by taking part in removing bacteria or initiating of bacterial colonization. Most of them are able to inhibit the formation of dental calculus and control the calcium phosphate homeostasis.