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Dancer AMM, Díez-León M, Bizley JK, Burn CC. Pet Owner Perception of Ferret Boredom and Consequences for Housing, Husbandry, and Environmental Enrichment. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12233262. [PMID: 36496783 PMCID: PMC9740969 DOI: 10.3390/ani12233262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Boredom is a potential chronic but overlooked animal welfare problem. Caused by monotony, sub-optimal stimulation, and restrictive housing, boredom can therefore affect companion animals, particularly those traditionally caged, such as ferrets. We surveyed owners' (n = 621) perceptions of ferrets' capacity to experience boredom, behaviours they associate with it, and whether their perception of their ferrets' capacity for boredom influenced training techniques, housing, and environmental enrichment (EE). Most (93.0%) owners believed that ferrets could experience boredom, but owners who doubted that ferrets experience boredom (7.0%) provided slightly but significantly fewer EE types to their ferrets. Heat map and classification tree analysis showed that owners identified scratching at enclosure walls (n = 420) and excessive sleeping (n = 312) as distinctive behavioural indicators of ferret boredom. Repetitive pacing (n = 381), yawning (n = 191), and resting with eyes open (n = 171) were also suggested to indicate ferret boredom, but these overlapped with other states. Finally, ferret owners suggested social housing, tactile interaction with humans, and exploration as most important for preventing boredom. These results suggest that pet ferrets are at risk of reduced welfare from owners who doubt they can experience boredom, highlighting an opportunity to improve welfare through information dissemination. We recommend further investigation into ferret boredom capacity, behavioural indicators, and mitigation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice M. M. Dancer
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
- Correspondence:
| | - María Díez-León
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Jennifer K. Bizley
- Ear Institute, University College London, 332 Gray’s Inn Road, London WC1X 8EE, UK
| | - Charlotte C. Burn
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
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2
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Lezana L, Hernández-Soto R, Díez-León M, Ríos M, Baquero E, Galicia D. The effect of early experiences in Barn Owl (Tyto alba) behaviour. Acquisition-expression time of neophobia and filial imprinting. Implications for management and conservation. Behav Processes 2021; 195:104569. [PMID: 34942324 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
In birds, early experiences determine the later behavioural phenotype of individuals and their way of adapting to the challenges they encounter in their environment. We investigated how the degree of exposure of barn owl chicks to humans and their biological parents influenced their behavioural response to humans and different environments. Only the treatment groups raised by human beings, or those that remained for less time with their biological parents (15 days posthatching), learned to fly towards their trainer. However, the two groups of chicks that were raised the longest by their biological parents (20 and 25 days) never flew towards their trainer. In these last groups, the filial imprint was shown not to be able to be reversed. Neophobia was estimated to emerge between 17 and 19 days of age, as barn owls were able to recognize the environment in which they were habituated, showing fear of a new environment. Birds were able to recognize the person who raised them and objects with which they had been raised. The results obtained in this work can help to establish breeding protocols in this and other species of birds of prey, which improve their adaptability to the environment where they will live, whether in captivity or in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lezana
- Department of Environmental Biology, University of Navarra, Spain; Tierra Rapaz, Calahorra, Spain.
| | - R Hernández-Soto
- Department of Environmental Biology, University of Navarra, Spain
| | - M Díez-León
- Deparment of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, UK
| | - M Ríos
- Tierra Rapaz, Calahorra, Spain
| | - E Baquero
- Department of Environmental Biology, University of Navarra, Spain
| | - D Galicia
- Department of Environmental Biology, University of Navarra, Spain
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3
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Meagher R, Díez-León M. Discussion of “In-depth analysis of the emotional reactivity of American mink ( Neovison vison) under behavioral tests”. Can J Anim Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1139/cjas-2019-0042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R.K. Meagher
- School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AR, UK
| | - María Díez-León
- Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London NW1 0TU, UK
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Díez-León M, Kitchenham L, Duprey R, Bailey CDC, Choleris E, Lewis M, Mason G. Neurophysiological correlates of stereotypic behaviour in a model carnivore species. Behav Brain Res 2019; 373:112056. [PMID: 31288059 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Stereotypic behaviour (SB) is common in animals housed in farm, zoo or laboratory conditions, including captive Carnivora (e.g. wild ursids and felids). Neurobiological data on housing-induced SBs come from four species (macaques, two rodent species, and horses), and suggest basal ganglia (BG) dysfunction. We investigated whether similar patterns occur in Carnivora via a model, American mink, because their SB is distinctive in form and timing. We raised 32 males in non-enriched (NE) or enriched (E) cages for 2 years, and assessed two forms of SB: 1) Carnivora-typical locomotor-and-whole-body ('loco') SBs (e.g. pacing, weaving); 2) scrabbling with the forepaws. Neuronal activity was analysed via cytochrome oxidase (CO) staining of the dorsal striatum (caudate; putamen), globus pallidus (externus, GPe; internus, GPi), STN, and nucleus accumbens (NAc); and the GPe:GPi ratio (GPr) calculated to assess relative activation of direct and indirect pathways. NE mink stereotyped more, and had lower GPr CO-staining indicating relatively lower indirect pathway activation. However, no single BG area was affected by housing and nor did GPr values covary with SB. Independent of housing, elevated NAc CO-staining predicted more loco SB, while scrabbling, probably because it negatively correlated with loco SB, negatively covaried with NAc CO-staining in NE subjects. These results thus implicate the NAc in individual differences in mink SB. However, because they cannot explain why NE subjects showed more SB, they provide limited support for the BG dysfunction hypothesis for this species' housing-induced SB. More research is therefore needed to understand how barren housing causes SB in captive Carnivora.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Díez-León
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, UK.
| | - L Kitchenham
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Canada
| | - R Duprey
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, USA
| | - C D C Bailey
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Canada
| | - E Choleris
- Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Canada
| | - M Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, USA
| | - G Mason
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Canada
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Martin-Wintle MS, Wintle NJP, Díez-León M, Swaisgood RR, Asa CS. Improving the sustainability of ex situ populations with mate choice. Zoo Biol 2018; 38:119-132. [PMID: 30474268 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Many breeding programs managed by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums' (AZA) Species Survival Plans® (SSPs) are not meeting goals for population size and genetic diversity due to failure of recommended pairs to breed successfully. According to AZA Population Management Center analyses, as many as 80% of recommended breeding pairs fail to produce young before the next breeding and transfer plan is issued. Determining reasons for failure and ensuring that a specific pairing produces offspring can be challenging. Mate incompatibility, one possible reason for failure, might be addressed by allowing mate choice. Although many SSP® coordinators and breeding managers, who implement breeding recommendations at their institutions, recognize the potential benefits of mate choice, examples and models for presenting and assessing choice are lacking. Here we review examples from birds, rodents, lagomorphs, marsupials, carnivores, fishes, and insects where mate choice has been incorporated. These examples provide strong evidence that free mate choice and mating with preferred partners increase a variety of reproductive success measurements when compared to assigned mate pairings. We suggest innovative housing and breeding arrangements for better incorporating mate choice into the management strategies for species held ex situ. Further, we discuss the fitness consequences and welfare implications of allowing choice. We advocate for a more systematic use of behavioral research in cooperative breeding programs. Behavioral management for mating can yield more successful programs, thus ensuring SSP® genetic and demographic goals are met, while simultaneously improving welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan S Martin-Wintle
- Recovery Ecology, Institute for Conservation Research, San Diego Zoo Global, Escondido, California.,PDXWildlife, Portland, Oregon
| | | | - María Díez-León
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK
| | - Ronald R Swaisgood
- Recovery Ecology, Institute for Conservation Research, San Diego Zoo Global, Escondido, California
| | - Cheryl S Asa
- AZA Reproductive Management Center, Saint Louis Zoo, St. Louis, Missouri
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Polanco A, Díez-León M, Mason G. Stereotypic behaviours are heterogeneous in their triggers and treatments in the American mink, Neovison vison, a model carnivore. Anim Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Díez-León M, Quinton M, Mason G. How tall should a mink cage be? Using animals’ preferences for different ceiling heights to improve cage design. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Díez-León M, Bursian S, Galicia D, Napolitano A, Palme R, Mason G. Environmentally enriching American mink (Neovison vison) increases lymphoid organ weight and skeletal symmetry, and reveals differences between two sub-types of stereotypic behaviour. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2015.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Díez-León M, Mason G. Effects of environmental enrichment and stereotypic behavior on maternal behavior and infant viability in a model carnivore, the American mink (Neovison vison). Zoo Biol 2015; 35:19-28. [DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Revised: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- María Díez-León
- Department of Animal Biosciences; University of Guelph; Ontario Canada
| | - Georgia Mason
- Department of Animal Biosciences; University of Guelph; Ontario Canada
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Díez-León M, Miranda R, Ariño AH, Galicia D. Setting priorities for existing conservation needs of crayfish and mink. Conserv Biol 2015; 29:599-601. [PMID: 25308514 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- María Díez-León
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
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Abstract
Animal welfare science is a young and thriving field. Over the last two decades, the output of scientific publications on welfare has increased by c. 10-15% annually (tripling as a proportion of all science papers logged by ISI’s Web of Science), with just under half the c. 8500 total being published in the last 4 years. These papers span an incredible 500+ journals, but around three quarters have been in 80 animal science, veterinary, ethology, conservation and specialized welfare publications, and nearly 25% are published in just two: Animal Welfare and Applied Animal Behaviour Science. Farmed animals – especially mammals – have attracted by far the most research. This broadly reflects the vastness of their populations and the degree of public concern they elicit; poultry, however, are under-studied, and farmed fish ever more so: fish have only recently attracted welfare research, and are by far the least studied of all agricultural species, perhaps because of ongoing doubts about their sentience. We predict this farm animal focus will continue in the future, but embracing more farmed fish, reptiles and invertebrates, and placing its findings within broader international contexts such as environmental and food security concerns. Laboratory animals have been consistently well studied, with a shift in recent years away from primates and towards rodents. Pets, the second largest animal sector after farmed animals, have in contrast been little studied considering their huge populations (cats being especially overlooked): we anticipate research on them increasing in the future. Captive wild animals, especially mammals, have attracted a consistent level of welfare research over the last two decades. Given the many thousands of diverse species kept by zoos, this must, and we predict will, increase. Future challenges and opportunities including refining the use of preference tests, stereotypic behaviour, corticosteroid outputs and putative indicators of positive affect, to enable more valid conclusions about welfare; investigating the evolution and functions of affective states; and last but not least, identifying which taxonomic groups and stages of development are actually sentient and so worthy of welfare concern.
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Díez-León M, Bowman J, Bursian S, Filion H, Galicia D, Kanefsky J, Napolitano A, Palme R, Schulte-Hostedde A, Scribner K, Mason G. Environmentally enriched male mink gain more copulations than stereotypic, barren-reared competitors. PLoS One 2013; 8:e80494. [PMID: 24282547 PMCID: PMC3839975 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Wild carnivores in zoos, conservation breeding centres, and farms commonly live in relatively small, unstimulating enclosures. Under these captive conditions, in a range of species including giant pandas, black-footed ferrets, and European mink, male reproductive abilities are often poor. Such problems have long been hypothesized to be caused by these animals' housing conditions. We show for the first time that rearing under welfare-improving (i.e., highly valued and stress-reducing) environmental enrichments enhances male carnivores' copulatory performance: in mate choice competitions, enriched male American mink (Neovison vison) mated more often than non-enriched males. We screened for several potential mediators of this effect. First was physiological stress and its impact on reproductive physiology; second, stress-mediated changes in morphology and variables related to immunocompetence that could influence male attractiveness; and third, behavioural changes likely to affect social competence, particularly autistic-like excessive routine and repetition ('perseveration') as is reflected in the stereotypies common in captive animals. Consistent with physiological stress, excreted steroid metabolites revealed that non-enriched males had higher cortisol levels and lower androgen levels than enriched conspecifics. Their os penises (bacula) also tended to be less developed. Consistent with reduced attractiveness, non-enriched males were lighter, with comparatively small spleens and a trend to greater fluctuating asymmetry. Consistent with impaired social competence, non-enriched males performed more stereotypic behaviour (e.g., pacing) in their home cages. Of all these effects, the only significant predictor of copulation number was stereotypy (a trend suggesting that low bodyweights may also be influential): highly stereotypic males gained the fewest copulations. The neurophysiological changes underlying stereotypy thus handicap males sexually. We hypothesise that such males are abnormally perseverative when interacting with females. Investigating similar problems in other taxa would be worthwhile, since many vertebrates, wild and domestic, live in conditions that cause stereotypic behaviour and/or impair neurological development.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Díez-León
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jeff Bowman
- Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Wildlife Research and Development Section, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Steve Bursian
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Hélène Filion
- Department of Biology Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
| | - David Galicia
- Department of Zoology and Ecology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Jeannette Kanefsky
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Angelo Napolitano
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Rupert Palme
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Kim Scribner
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Georgia Mason
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Meagher RK, Campbell DL, Dallaire JA, Díez-León M, Palme R, Mason GJ. Sleeping tight or hiding in fright? The welfare implications of different subtypes of inactivity in mink. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2013.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Meagher R, Bechard A, Palme R, Díez-León M, Hunter DB, Mason G. Decreased litter size in inactive female mink (Neovison vison): Mediating variables and implications for overall productivity. Can J Anim Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.4141/cjas2011-107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Meagher, R., Bechard, A., Palme, R., Díez-León, M., Hunter, D. B. and Mason, G. 2012. Decreased litter size in inactive female mink ( Neovison vison ): Mediating variables and implications for overall productivity. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 92: 131–141. Farmed mink vary dramatically in activity: very inactive individuals rarely leave the nest-box, while others spend hours active daily, often performing stereotypic behaviour (SB). SB typically correlates with increased reproductive output, and inactivity, with decreased output. Our objectives were to determine whether SB or inactivity best predicted litter size (LS), and to test three hypothesized reasons for inactive dams’ reduced LS: H1, excess fat; H2, chronic stress (potentially underlying inactivity because fear motivates hiding); and H3, health problems. We assessed time budgets pre-breeding, scored body condition visually, conducted health exams, and assessed stress using faecal cortisol metabolites (FCM) and "glove tests" for fear. Results did not support H2 and H3: inactive females were no more fearful than active females (P>0.10), they excreted lower levels of FCM (P=0.033), and were considered healthy. As predicted by H1, inactive females had higher body condition scores (P<0.0001), which predicted decreased LS (P=0.040). However, path analysis determined this was unlikely to mediate the inactivity–LS relationship. Compared with SB, inactivity more consistently predicted both LS (negatively, P ≤ 0.038) and kit weight (positively, P ≤ 0.037). Therefore, decreasing inactivity in farmed mink, rather than increasing their SB or decreasing their body condition should most improve productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Meagher
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E., Building 70, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
| | - Allison Bechard
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E., Building 70, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States 32611-2250
| | - Rupert Palme
- Department of Biomedical Sciences/Biochemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, A-1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - María Díez-León
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E., Building 70, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
| | - Douglas Bruce Hunter
- Department of Pathobiology, OVC, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E., Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
| | - Georgia Mason
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E., Building 70, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
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Dallaire JA, Meagher RK, Díez-León M, Garner JP, Mason GJ. Recurrent perseveration correlates with abnormal repetitive locomotion in adult mink but is not reduced by environmental enrichment. Behav Brain Res 2011; 224:213-22. [PMID: 21466825 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2010] [Revised: 03/24/2011] [Accepted: 03/27/2011] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
We analysed the relationship between abnormal repetitive behaviour (ARB), the presence/absence of environmental enrichment, and two types of behavioural disinhibition in farmed American mink, Neovison vison. The first type, recurrent perseveration, the inappropriate repetition of already completed responses, was assessed using three indices of excessive response repetition and patterning in a bias-corrected serial two-choice guessing task. The second type, disinhibition of prepotent responses to reward cues, a form of impulsivity, was tested in a locomotive detour task adapted from primate reaching tasks: subjects were required to walk around, rather than directly into, a transparent barrier behind which food was visible. In older adult females, recurrent perseveration positively predicted pre-feeding abnormal repetitive locomotion (ARL) in Non-enriched housing. High-ARL subjects also performed repeated (same-choice) responses more rapidly than low-ARL animals, even when statistically controlling for alternated (different-choice) response latency. Mink performed much less ARL following transfer to Enriched housing, but there was no corresponding change in recurrent perseveration. Thus, elevated recurrent perseveration is not sufficient for frequent ARL; and while captive environments do determine ARL frequency, in mink, they do not necessarily do so by modifying levels of perseveration. Disinhibition of prepotent responses to reward cues, meanwhile, did not predict ARL. In a separate sample of differentially housed young adults, neither type of behavioural disinhibition predicted ARL, and again, whether or not housing was enriched did not affect behavioural disinhibition despite affecting ARL. Thus, the relationship between recurrent perseveration and ARB may only develop with age; longitudinal studies are now required for confirmation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie A Dallaire
- University of Guelph, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, 50 Stone Road East, Building #70, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada.
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