Genetic and reproductive characterisation of seasonal flowering morphs of Gentianella bohemica revealed strong reproductive isolation and possible single origin

Phenotypic polymorphism represents the most obvious type of intraspecific diversity raising scientific interest in its evolution and maintenance. We studied the regional endemic Gentianella bohemica, which exhibits an early- and a late-flowering morph. Genetic variation and structuring were investigated in relation to potential pollination and mating system differences, to verify hypotheses of evolutionary integrity, origin, and reproductive isolation of both flowering morphs. We identified the rarer early-flowering morph as an independent genetic entity, being more selfing, likely stronger pollinator-limited and reproductively isolated. All analysed populations showed strong among population differentiation and low overall genetic diversity due to habitat fragmentation and reduced population sizes. These results indicate likely inbreeding, but we also found evidence for possible outbreeding depression in the late-flowering morph. Both G. bohemica morphs are characteristic of traditionally used, nutrient-poor grasslands, but they represent independent conservation units and need temporally adapted management. We, therefore, also briefly discuss our results in the general context of conservation activities in relation to intraspecific polymorphisms and strongly argue for their formal and consequent consideration.

Synthesis and Characterization of Silver(I) and Gold(I) Complexes Bearing a Pyrido-annelated N-Heterocyclic Carbene: A Rare Example of a Cocrystal Containing Two Different Gold(I) Complexes

The cyclohexyl-substituted imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-2-ium hexafluorophosphate, 2a, has been prepared as precursor for the respective pyrido-annelated N-heterocyclic carbene. [(NHC)2Ag]PF6, 3, has been synthesized by the reaction of 2a with AgCl=KOH in dichloromethane (DCM). Unexpectedly, the reaction of 3 with (tht)AuBr yielded both (NHC)AuBr and [(NHC)Au(tht)]PF6 which formed a 1 : 1 cocrystal (4a,b). The complexes are aggregated to infinite chains, which are governed by both π-π stacking and weak aurophilic interactions. Subsequent oxidation of the co-crystalline material with CsBr3 gave (NHC)AuBr3, 5. All compounds were characterized by NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and elemental analysis. Additionally, compounds 2a and 5 were investigated by electronic spectroscopy: 2a behaves like a typical aromatic compound exhibiting absorption and fluorescence bands attributable to π-π* transitions. The Au(III) complex 5 exhibits ligand-centered fluorescence at room temperature and both ligand-centered fluorescence and a weak phosphorescence at 77 K.

Photoreductive generation of amorphous bismuth nanoparticles using polysaccharides--bismuth-cellulose nanocomposites

A simple and highly reproducible synthesis of amorphous bismuth nanoparticles incorporated into a polysaccharide matrix using a photoreduction process is presented. As precursor for the generation of the Bi nanoparticles, organosoluble triphenylbismuth is used. The precursor is dissolved in toluene and mixed with a hydrophobic organosoluble polysaccharide, namely trimethylsilyl cellulose (TMSC) with high DSSi. The solution is subjected to UV exposure, which induces the homolytic cleavage of the bismuth-carbon bond in BiPh3 resulting in the formation of Bi(0) and phenyl radicals. The aggregation of the Bi atoms can be controlled in the TMSC matrix and yields nanoparticles of around 20 nm size as proven by TEM. The phenyl radicals undergo recombination to form small organic molecules like benzene and biphenyl, which can be removed from the nanocomposite after lyophilization and exposure to high vacuum. Finally, the TMSC matrix is converted to cellulose after exposure to HCl vapors, which remove the trimethylsilyl groups from the TMSC derivative. Although TMSC is converted to cellulose, the formed TMS-OH is not leaving the nanocomposite but reacts instead with surface oxide layer of the Bi nanoparticles to form silylated Bi nanoparticles as proven by TEM/EDX.

Facile oxidation of NHC-Au(i) to NHC-Au(iii) complexes by CsBr3

CsBr₃was investigated as a new and convenient oxidant for NHC-Au(i) complexes for the preparation of the respective Au(iii) complexes.

Silver and gold complexes with a new 1,10-phenanthroline analogue N-heterocyclic carbene: a combined structural, theoretical, and photophysical study

Unusual coordination for gold: an imidazolium salt was synthesized and used as a precursor for an N-heterocyclic carbene, which can be considered as the carbene analogue of 1,10-phenanthroline. Like the diimine congener, this ligand gives luminescent metal complexes. Remarkably, the Au(III) complex features a gold atom in an unusual environment: it is surrounded by six donor atoms, two of which interact electrostatically with the Au atom.

SAXS investigation on aggregation phenomena in supercritical CO2

Synchrotron Small-Angle X-Ray scattering (SAXS) measurements on aggregate formation of a Polyvinyl acetate- b-Perfluoro octyl acrylate (PVAc- b-PFOA) block copolymer in supercritical CO(2) are here reported. Experiments were carried out for a series of different thermodynamic conditions, changing the solvent density by profiling both the pressure at constant temperature and the temperature at constant pressure. This block copolymer and in general fluorocarbon-hydrocarbon di-blocks form aggregates depending on the value of CO(2) density. A sharp transition between monomers dissolved as random coils and micelles characterized by a solvophilic shell and a solvophobic core occurs when the CO(2) density reaches a critical value. Results of critical micellization density (CMD) derived from pressure and temperature ramps experiment along with the comparison with previous SANS results are here reported to give additional experimental support to the solvent density-driven aggregation process.

Studies of the structure and organization of cationic lipid bilayer membranes: calorimetric, spectroscopic, and x-ray diffraction studies of linear saturated P-O-ethyl phosphatidylcholines

Differential scanning calorimetry, x-ray diffraction, and infrared and (31)P-nuclear magnetic resonance ((31)P-NMR) spectroscopy were used to examine the thermotropic phase behavior and organization of cationic model membranes composed of the P-O-ethyl esters of a homologous series of n-saturated 1,2-diacyl phosphatidylcholines (Et-PCs). Differential scanning calorimetry studies indicate that on heating, these lipids exhibit single highly energetic and cooperative endothermic transitions whose temperatures and enthalpies are higher than those of the corresponding phosphatidylcholines (PCs). Upon cooling, these Et-PCs exhibit two exothermic transitions at temperatures slightly below the single endotherm observed upon heating. These cooling exotherms have both been assigned to transitions between the liquid-crystalline and gel phases of these lipids by x-ray diffraction. The x-ray diffraction data also show that unlike the parent PCs, the chain-melting phase transition of these Et-PCs involves a direct transformation of a chain-interdigitated gel phase to the lamellar liquid-crystalline phase for the homologous series of n > or = 14. Our (31)P-NMR spectroscopic studies indicate that the rates of phosphate headgroup reorientation in both gel and liquid-crystalline phases of these lipids are comparable to those of the corresponding PC bilayers. However, the shape of the (31)P-NMR spectra observed in the interdigitated gel phase indicates that phosphate headgroup reorientation is subject to constraints that are not encountered in the non-interdigitated gel phases of parent PCs. The infrared spectroscopic data indicate that the Et-PCs adopt a very compact form of hydrocarbon chain packing in the interdigitated gel phase and that the polar/apolar interfacial regions of these bilayers are less hydrated than those of corresponding PC bilayers in both the gel and liquid-crystalline phases. Our results indicate that esterification of PC phosphate headgroups results in many alterations of bilayer physical properties aside from the endowment of a positively charged surface. This fact should be considered in assessing the interactions of these compounds with naturally occurring lipids and with other biological materials.

New evidence for gel-liquid crystalline phase coexistence in the ripple phase of phosphatidylcholines

Experimental evidence supporting the hypothesis of gel-liquid crystalline phase coexistence in the stable ripple phase of diacylphosphatidylcholines has been obtained from time-resolved X-ray small- (SAXS) and wide-angle diffraction (WAXS) in the millisecond to second time domain. The pretransition of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) exhibits a thin lamellar liquid crystalline intermediate phase (designated Lalpha) if driven far away from equilibrium by an infrared temperature jump (T-jump) technique. The findings can be described by a two-step model. (1) Instantaneously with the T-jump, an anomalously thin lamellar liquid crystalline intermediate phase (d = 5.6-5.8 nm) forms, coexisting with the original gel-phase Lbeta'. Within the first seconds, the lamellar repeat distance of the intermediate increases to a value of about 6.7 nm. A closer examination of these kinetics reveals two relaxation components: a fast process, proceeding within tenths of a second, and a slow process, on the time scale of a few seconds. (2) Finally, both the liquid crystalline and the gel-phase relax into the stable ripple phase Pbeta'. The total process time of the transition is nearly independent of the addition of NaCl, but varies strongly with the chain length of the lecithin species.

X-ray studies on the interaction of the antimicrobial peptide gramicidin S with microbial lipid extracts: evidence for cubic phase formation

We have investigated the effect of the interaction of the antimicrobial peptide gramicidin S (GS) on the thermotropic phase behavior of model lipid bilayer membranes generated from the total membrane lipids of Acholeplasma laidlawii B and Escherichia coli. The A. laidlawii B membrane lipids consist primarily of neutral glycolipids and anionic phospholipids, while the E. coli inner membrane lipids consist exclusively of zwitterionic and anionic phospholipids. We show that the addition of GS at a lipid-to-peptide molar ratio of 25 strongly promotes the formation of bicontinuous inverted cubic phases in both of these lipid model membranes, predominantly of space group Pn3m. In addition, the presence of GS causes a thinning of the liquid-crystalline bilayer and a reduction in the lattice spacing of the inverted cubic phase which can form in the GS-free membrane lipid extracts at sufficiently high temperatures. This latter finding implies that GS potentiates the formation of an inverted cubic phase by increasing the negative curvature stress in the host lipid bilayer. This effect may be an important aspect of the permeabilization and eventual disruption of the lipid bilayer phase of biological membranes, which appears to be the mechanism by which GS kills bacterial cells and lysis erythrocytes.

Trapping of short-lived intermediates in phospholipid phase transitions: the L* alpha phase

Time-resolved small-angle X-ray diffraction of liquid-crystalline phospholipid-water systems under temperature or pressure jump conditions has demonstrated the existence of an ordered, intermediate L alpha phase, with a sub-second lifetime, designated as the L* alpha-phase. The lamellar repeat spacing is, universally, 0.3 nm smaller than that of the parent phase, irrespective of the lipid composition and of the jump conditions, provided that the jump leads to a net volume expansion of the phase. The presence of salts, most notably LiCl, leads to a prolongation of the lifetime. The results suggest a non-monotonic potential function for the interbilayer water thickness.

Effect of staphylococcal delta-lysin on the thermotropic phase behavior and vesicle morphology of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine lipid bilayer model membranes. Differential scanning calorimetric, 31P nuclear magnetic resonance and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic, and X-ray diffraction studies

We investigated the effects of various concentrations of staphylococcal delta-lysin on the thermotropic phase behavior of large multilamellar dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) vesicles by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), 31P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The DSC studies revealed that at all concentrations, the addition of delta-lysin progressively decreases the enthalpy of the pretransition of DMPC bilayers without significantly affecting its temperature or cooperativity. Similarly, the addition of smaller quantities of peptide has little effect on the temperature of the main phase transition of DMPC bilayers but does reduce the cooperativity and enthalpy of this transition somewhat. However, at higher peptide concentrations, a second phase transition with a slightly increased temperature and a markedly reduced cooperativity and enthalpy is also induced, and this latter phase transition resolves itself into two components at the highest peptide concentrations that are tested. Moreover, our 31P NMR spectroscopic studies reveal that at relatively low delta-lysin concentrations, essentially all of the phospholipid molecules produce spectra characteristic of the lamellar phase, whereas at the higher peptide concentrations, an increasing proportion exhibit an isotropic signal. Also, at the highest delta-lysin concentrations that are studied, the isotropic component of the 31P NMR spectrum also resolves itself into two components. At the highest peptide concentration that was tested, we are also able to effect a macroscopic separation of our sample into two fractions by centrifugation, a pellet containing relatively smaller amounts of delta-lysin and a supernatant containing larger amounts of peptide relative to the amount of lipid present. We are also able to show that the more cooperative phase transition detected calorimetrically, and the lamellar phase 31P NMR signal, arise from the pelleted material, while the less cooperative phase transition and the isotropic 31P NMR signal arise from the supernatant. In addition, we demonstrate by X-ray diffraction that the pelleted material corresponds to delta-lysin-containing large multilamellar vesicles and the supernatant to a mixture of delta-lysin-containing small unilamellar vesicles and discoidal particles. We also show by FTIR spectroscopy that delta-lysin exists predominantly in the alpha-helical conformation in aqueous solution or when interacting with DMPC, and that a large fraction of the peptide bonds undergo H-D exchange in D(2)O. However, upon interaction with DMPC, the fraction of exchangeable amide protons decreases. We also demonstrate by this technique that both of the phase transitions detected by DSC correspond to phospholipid hydrocarbon chain-melting phase transitions. Finally, we show by several techniques that the absolute concentrations of delta-lysin and the thermal history, as well as the lipid:peptide ratio, can affect the thermotropic phase behavior and morphology of peptide-lipid aggregates.

Microphase separation in low density lipoproteins. Evidence for a fluid triglyceride core below the lipid melting transition

The structural organization of the neutral lipid core in human low density lipoproteins (LDL) was investigated in physicochemically defined, distinct human LDL subspecies in the density range of 1. 0244-1.0435 g/ml by evaluation of the core lipid transition temperature, chemical composition, and the behavior of spin-labeled core lipids. Calorimetric studies were performed on more than 60 LDL preparations, and the transition temperature, which varied between 19 and 32 degreesC, was correlated to the chemical composition and revealed a discontinuity at a critical cholesteryl ester to triglyceride ratio of approximately 7:1. For electron spin resonance studies, several LDL preparations were probed with spin-labeled cholesteryl esters and triglycerides, respectively. In LDL with a high triglyceride content, both labels exhibited similar mobility behavior. In contrast, in LDL with only small concentrations of triglycerides, the behavior of labeled cholesteryl esters and labeled triglycerides differed distinctly. The cholesteryl esters were strongly immobilized below the transition temperature, whereas the triglycerides remained fluid throughout the measured temperatures. These results suggest that the critical cholesteryl ester to triglyceride mass ratio of 7:1 corresponds to two concentric compartments with a radial ratio of 2:1, where the liquid triglycerides occupy the core, and the cholesteryl esters form the frozen shell. At higher triglyceride contents, the triglyceride molecules insert into the cholesteryl ester shell and depress the peak transition temperature of the LDL core, whereas at lower triglyceride contents, excess cholesteryl esters are dissolved in the core.

Structural changes of creatine kinase upon substrate binding

Small-angle x-ray scattering was used to investigate structural changes upon binding of individual substrates or a transition state analog complex (TSAC; Mg-ADP, creatine, and KNO3) to creatine kinase (CK) isoenzymes (dimeric muscle-type (M)-CK and octameric mitochondrial (Mi)-CK) and monomeric arginine kinase (AK). Considerable changes in the shape and the size of the molecules occurred upon binding of Mg-nucleotide or TSAC. The radius of gyration of Mi-CK was reduced from 55.6 A (free enzyme) to 48.9 A (enzyme plus Mg-ATP) and to 48.2 A (enzyme plus TSAC). M-CK showed similar changes from 28.0 A (free enzyme) to 25.6 A (enzyme plus Mg-ATP) and to 25.5 A (enzyme plus TSAC). Creatine alone did not lead to significant changes in the radii of gyration, nor did free ATP or ADP. AK also showed a change of the radius of gyration from 21.5 A (free enzyme) to 19.7 A (enzyme plus Mg-ATP), whereas with arginine alone only a minor change could be observed. The primary change in structure as seen with monomeric AK seems to be a Mg-nucleotide-induced domain movement relative to each other, whereas the effect of substrate may be of local order only. In CK, however, additional movements have to be involved.

Mutation of cis-proline 207 in mitochondrial creatine kinase to alanine leads to increased acid stability

We show that the mutation of an uncharged residue far from the active site to another uncharged residue can have effects on the active site without disturbing the overall structure of the protein. Cis-proline 207 of mitochondrial creatine kinase was mutated to alanine. The mutant showed a decrease in the pH-optimum for ATP synthesis by 1.5 units while the maximum relative activity was lowered to 53% of the wild-type enzyme. In the direction of ATP consumption, the pH optimum was lowered by 1.3 units and the maximum relative activity was 49% of the wild-type enzyme. The enzyme kinetic parameters Km and Kd for the substrates did not change dramatically, indicating a largely unperturbed active site. Small-angle X-ray scattering was used to investigate the structural change concomitant with the mutation, yielding a scattering profile only slightly different from that of the wild-type enzyme. Neither the radius of gyration nor the molecular mass showed any significant differences, leading to the conclusion that quarternary organization and fold of the mutant and the wild-type enzymes were similar. Theoretical analysis suggests the most probable primary source of structural change to be a transition of residue 207 peptide bond torsional angle co from the cis to the trans configuration.

First performance assessment of the small-angle X-ray scattering beamline at ELETTRA

The double-focusing high-flux wiggler beamline dedicated to small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) at ELETTRA has gone into user operation recently. It has been designed specifically for time-resolved studies of non-crystalline and fibrous materials in the submillisecond time scale, and has been optimized for small-angle scattering measurements. An overview of the beamline status and of some representative results, highlighting the performance of the SAXS beamline, are given.

Structure and Thermotropic Behaviour of Mixed Choline Phospholipid Model Membranes

Phosphatidylcholines and sphingomyelins are among the most abundant lipids in mammalian cell membranes, being major components of platelets or erythrocytes, and of the lipid monolayer of lipoproteins. General efforts have been devoted to the elucidation of the interaction of the ubiquitous membrane component cholesterol with these choline phospholipids, but fewer studies have been reported on the interaction between the phospholipids themselves. A gel to liquid-crystalline phase transition was observed for pure sphingomyelin liposomes at physiological temperature, while palmitoyloleoyl phosphatidylcholine adopts a liquid-crystalline phase in the temperature range 273–323 K. The two phospholipids are miscible at all molar ratios in the liquid-crystalline phase, characterized by very similar lamellar repeat distances for all binary lipid mixtures. The gel phase of pure sphingolipid liposomes exhibited a markedly smaller lamellar repeat distance as compared to mixed lipid vesicles, which increased slightly with temperature for the pure sphingomyelin (66.9–69.2 Å). Concomitantly, altered hydrocarbon chain packing was observed. Similar diffractograms were obtained in the presence of 10 mol% phosphatidylcholine. However, in the composition range between 20 and 60 mol% phosphatidylcholine in the phosphatidylcholine–sphingomyelin admixture, the lamellar repeat distance in the gel phase was markedly increased and remained almost constant (around 75 Å) below the phase transition.

Performance and First Results of the ELETTRA High-Flux Beamline for Small-Angle X-ray Scattering

A new beamline for small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) has recently been constructed and is presently under final commissioning at the 2 GeV storage ring ELETTRA. It has been designed specifically for time-resolved studies of non-crystalline and fibrous materials and has been optimized for small-angle scattering measurements. The beamline operates with a SAXS resolution between 10 and about 1400 Å in d spacing (at 8 keV) and has been optimized with respect to high flux at the sample [of the order of 1013 photons s−1 for 8 keV photons (2 GeV, 400 mA)]. Soon it will be possible to perform simultaneously wide-angle diffraction measurements in the d-spacing range 1.2–8 Å (at 8 keV). In order to allow time-resolved (resolution ~1 ms) small-angle scattering measurements, a high-power 57-pole wiggler is used as the beamline source. From its beam, one of three discrete energies, 5.4, 8 and 16 keV, can be selected with a double-crystal monochromator, which contains three pairs of asymmetrically cut plane Si(111) crystals. Downstream, the beam is focused horizontally and vertically by a toroidal mirror. Commissioning tests of this new SAXS beamline showed that all design parameters have been realized.

Phospholipid phase transitions: kinetics and structural mechanisms

A brief review is given on the principles and methods used to investigate structural phase transitions in phospholipid supramolecular structures. The conceptual differences of approaches close to and far from equilibrium are addressed, and the consequences in terms of the limits of interpretation for different types of methods, in particular referring to jump-relaxation and steady-state techniques, are surveyed. With the emphasis on connecting dynamic and structural information, the results obtained so far from different techniques are reviewed, and the open questions addressed. The more recent advances by millisecond time-resolved X-ray diffraction with synchrotron radiation and their main results obtained for transitions triggered by IR-laser temperature jumps are summarized. As a major novel aspect in the field, the necessity of considering martensitic, diffusionless transformation mechanisms and the occurrence of intermediate structures is highlighted.

Cloning and DNA sequence analysis of the glucose oxidase gene from Aspergillus niger NRRL-3

A cDNA library from Aspergillus niger strain NRRL-3 enriched in sequences glucose oxidase was constructed. An 800 bp cDNA clone isolated from this library was used to screen 12,000 recombinant phages from an EMBL3 genomic library. A 15 kbp DNA segment isolated from this library contained the 1815 bp structural gene for glucose oxidase as well as a short 5'- and a longer 3'-noncoding region. The deduced protein sequence was verified by partial peptide sequencing.

A small-angle X-ray scattering study on pre-irradiated malate synthase. The influence of formate, superoxide dismutase, and catalase on the X-ray induced aggregation of the enzyme

The sulfhydryl enzyme malate synthase from baker's yeast was X-irradiated with 6 kGy in air-saturated aqueous solution (enzyme concentration: congruent to 10 mg/ml; volume: 120 microliters), in the absence or presence of the specific scavengers formate, superoxide dismutase, and catalase. After X-irradiation, a small aliquot of the irradiated solutions was tested for enzymic activity while the main portion was investigated by means of small-angle X-ray scattering. Additionally, an unirradiated sample without additives was investigated as a reference. Experiments yielded the following results: X-irradiation in the absence of the mentioned scavengers caused considerable aggregation, fragmentation, and inactivation of the enzyme. The dose Dt37 for total (= repairable + non-repairable) inactivation resulted as 4.4 kGy. The mean radius of gyration was found to be about 13 nm. The mean degree of aggregation was obtained as 5.7, without correction for fragmentation. An estimation based on the thickness factor revealed that about 19% of material might be strongly fragmented. When this amount of fragments was accordingly taken into account, a value of 7.1 was obtained as an upper limit for the mean degree of aggregation. The observed retention of the thickness factor and the finding of two different cross-section factors are in full accord with the two-dimensional aggregation model established previously (Zipper and Durchschlag, Radiat. Environ. Biophys. 18, 99-121 (1980)). The presence of catalytic amounts of superoxide dismutase and/or catalase, in the absence of formate, during X-irradiation reduced both aggregation and inactivation significantly. The presence of formate (10 or 100 mM) during X-irradiation led to a strong decrease of aggregation and inactivation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)