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Mayer-Hamblett N, Clancy JP, Jain R, Donaldson SH, Fajac I, Goss CH, Polineni D, Ratjen F, Quon BS, Zemanick ET, Bell SC, Davies JC, Jain M, Konstan MW, Kerper NR, LaRosa T, Mall MA, McKone E, Pearson K, Pilewski JM, Quittell L, Rayment JH, Rowe SM, Taylor-Cousar JL, Retsch-Bogart G, Downey DG. Advancing the pipeline of cystic fibrosis clinical trials: a new roadmap with a global trial network perspective. Lancet Respir Med 2023; 11:932-944. [PMID: 37699421 PMCID: PMC10982891 DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(23)00297-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
The growing use of modulator therapies aimed at restoring cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein function in people with cystic fibrosis has fundamentally altered clinical trial strategies needed to advance new therapeutics across an orphan disease population that is now divided by CFTR modulator eligibility. The development of a robust pipeline of nucleic acid-based therapies (NABTs)-initially directed towards the estimated 10% of the cystic fibrosis population who are genetically ineligible for, or intolerant of, CFTR modulators-is dependent on the optimisation of restricted trial participant resources across multiple development programmes, a challenge that will preclude the use of gold standard placebo-controlled trials. Advancement of a full pipeline of symptomatic therapies across the entire cystic fibrosis population will be challenged by smaller effect sizes and uncertainty regarding their clinical importance in a growing modulator-treated population with more mild and stable pulmonary disease. In this Series paper, we aim to lay the foundation for clinical trial strategy and community partnership that must deviate from established and familiar precedent to advance the future pipeline of cystic fibrosis therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Mayer-Hamblett
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | | | - Raksha Jain
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Scott H Donaldson
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Isabelle Fajac
- Assistance Publique, Hôpitaux de Paris, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Christopher H Goss
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Deepika Polineni
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Felix Ratjen
- Translational Medicine Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada; Division of Respiratory Medicine, The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Edith T Zemanick
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Scott C Bell
- Department of Thoracic Medicine, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Children's Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Jane C Davies
- National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK; Royal Brompton & Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Manu Jain
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Michael W Konstan
- Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA; Rainbow Babies and Children's Hospital, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | | | | | - Marcus A Mall
- Department of Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, Immunology and Critical Care Medicine, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany; German Centre for Lung Research, Berlin, Germany; Berlin Institute of Health, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Edward McKone
- St. Vincent's University Hospital and University College Dublin School of Medicine, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Joseph M Pilewski
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Lynne Quittell
- Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | | | | | | | - George Retsch-Bogart
- Division of Pediatric Pulmonology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Damian G Downey
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
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2
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Hendley AM, Urano A, Peng XL, Ashe S, Kerper NR, Phu TA, Ng M, Giacometti S, Berrios DI, Jang GH, Yeh JJ, Gallinger S, Chang DK, Biankin AV, Weaver VM, Kim GE, Dawson DW, Raffai RL, Hebrok M. Abstract C051: Ceramide signaling regulates PDA aggression through exosome reprogramming of the stroma. Cancer Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.panca22-c051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Ceramide is a bioactive lipid signaling molecule that regulates multiple cellular processes influencing pancreatic tumor progression and drug response. The pleiotropic role of ceramide signaling in cancer includes modulation of exosome biogenesis and secretion. Smpd3 encodes an enzyme that generates ceramide through hydrolysis of sphingomyelin. Employing the KPC mouse model of pancreatic cancer, we demonstrated that Smpd3 regulates exosome biogenesis in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) cells and is pro-tumorigenic during PDA progression. Ablation of Smdp3 in KPC mice significantly extends survival by 19% when compared to KPC; Smpd3wt/wt controls. KPC; Smpd3f/f mice display significantly less PanIN and tumor burden compared to KPC; Smpd3wt/wt controls. Lipidomics analysis of epithelial cell lines generated from end-stage pancreatic tumors of KPC; Smpd3f/f and KPC; Smpd3wt/wt mice demonstrated an alteration in hundreds of lipid species including ceramides, triacylglycerides, sphingomyelins, and phosphatidylcholines. Analysis of RNA-seq data of these epithelial cell lines showed a switching of primary tumors from the predominant more aggressive basal-like subtype seen in KPC; Smpd3wt/wt mice to classical in KPC; Smpd3f/f mice. Pathways analysis of our RNA-seq dataset showed an enrichment for genes involved in cellular mechanics and regulation of the tumor microenvironment. To query if Smpd3-generated exosomes have a direct effect on pancreatic tumor progression, we injected KPC; Smpd3wt/wt and KPC; Smpd3f/f mice with exosomes isolated from KPC; Smpd3f/f and KPC; Smpd3wt/wt PDA cell lines. Injection of exosomes derived from KPC; Smpd3f/f mice significantly extended survival of both Smpd3wt/wt and KPC; Smpd3f/f mice when compared to injection of exosomes isolated from KPC; Smpd3wt/wt mice, suggesting an anti-tumorigenic effect of exosomes isolated from Smpd3-deficient PDA cell lines. We observed a decrease in extracellular matrix collagen abundance and fewer activated stellate cells and fibroblasts in KPC; Smpd3f/f compared to control KPC; Smpd3wt/wt pancreata. Abrogation of Smpd3 expression also affected immune cell infiltration, as demonstrated by a significant increase in iNOS+ F4/80+ double positive macrophages in KPC; Smpd3f/f pancreata when compared to KPC; Smpd3wt/wt pancreata. Loss of Smpd3 resulted in a significant reduction in CD31+ endothelial cells in pancreatic tumors of KPC; Smpd3f/f mice when compared to KPC; Smpd3wt/wt mice, which may influence the ability of chemotherapeutics to enter pancreatic tumors. Our patient data demonstrate that high SMPD3 expression in surgically resected, treatment naive PDA significantly correlated with longer patient survival when patients received adjuvant chemotherapy, more than 95% of which was gemcitabine. Collectively, our data show that ceramide-dependent exosomes promote tumorigenesis, specifically activation of stellate cells and fibroblasts – which may in turn induce a stiff, fibrotic, proinflammatory tumor microenvironment that also impedes vasculature formation.
Citation Format: Audrey M. Hendley, Atsushi Urano, Xianlu L. Peng, Sudipta Ashe, Natanya R. Kerper, Tuan A. Phu, Martin Ng, Simone Giacometti, David I. Berrios, Gun H. Jang, Jen J. Yeh, Steven Gallinger, David K. Chang, Andrew V. Biankin, Valerie M. Weaver, Grace E. Kim, David W. Dawson, Robert L. Raffai, Matthias Hebrok. Ceramide signaling regulates PDA aggression through exosome reprogramming of the stroma [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR Special Conference on Pancreatic Cancer; 2022 Sep 13-16; Boston, MA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(22 Suppl):Abstract nr C051.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Atsushi Urano
- 1University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,
| | | | - Sudipta Ashe
- 1University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,
| | | | - Tuan A. Phu
- 1University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,
| | - Martin Ng
- 1University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,
| | | | | | | | - Jen J. Yeh
- 2University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC,
| | | | | | | | | | - Grace E. Kim
- 1University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,
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3
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Parent AV, Faleo G, Chavez J, Saxton M, Berrios DI, Kerper NR, Tang Q, Hebrok M. Selective deletion of human leukocyte antigens protects stem cell-derived islets from immune rejection. Cell Rep 2021; 36:109538. [PMID: 34407395 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Stem cell-based replacement therapies hold the promise to restore function of damaged or degenerated tissue such as the pancreatic islets in people with type 1 diabetes. Wide application of these therapies requires overcoming the fundamental roadblock of immune rejection. To address this issue, we use genetic engineering to create human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) in which the majority of the polymorphic human leukocyte antigens (HLAs), the main drivers of allogeneic rejection, are deleted. We retain the common HLA class I allele HLA-A2 and less polymorphic HLA-E/F/G to allow immune surveillance and inhibition of natural killer (NK) cells. We employ a combination of in vitro assays and humanized mouse models to demonstrate that these gene manipulations significantly reduce NK cell activity and T-cell-mediated alloimmune response against hPSC-derived islet cells. In summary, our approach produces hypoimmunogenic hPSCs that can be readily matched with recipients to avoid alloimmune rejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey V Parent
- Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
| | - Gaetano Faleo
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Jessica Chavez
- Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Michael Saxton
- Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - David I Berrios
- Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Natanya R Kerper
- Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Qizhi Tang
- Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Matthias Hebrok
- Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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4
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Hendley AM, Urano A, Kerper NR, Duong P, Bailey P, Chang DK, Biankin AV, Dawson DW, Kim G, Raffai RL, Hebrok M. Abstract C20: Smpd3 augments chemotherapy and thwarts PDA progression. Cancer Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.panca19-c20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Deregulated sphingolipid metabolism alters pancreatic cancer progression; for that reason, bioactive lipid signaling molecules such as ceramide show promise as both biomarkers for disease progression and novel therapeutic targets. Intracellular ceramide levels are critical for regulating cellular senescence, apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest in response to stress stimuli such as chemotherapeutics. Our data show Sphingomyelin Phosphodiesterase 3 (Smpd3), a regulator of ceramide synthesis and exosome biogenesis, has a protumorigenic function in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA). Immunodeficient mice orthotopically implanted with Smpd3-deficient PDA cell lines demonstrate significantly reduced tumor burden and longer survival when compared with controls. This observation was mirrored by our KPC; Smpd3f/f mouse model, in which loss of Smpd3 expression significantly correlated with longer survival and decreased metastasis when compared to KPC; Smpd3wt/wt controls. Analysis of SMPD3 in PDA patients revealed that low SMPD3 RNA and protein expression is significantly associated with worse survival. Because chemotherapeutics have been shown to affect expression and function of SMPD3, we stratified patient cohorts into individuals who received adjuvant chemotherapy, more than 95% of which was gemcitabine, and those who did not receive adjuvant chemotherapy. We found that high SMPD3 expression in surgically resected PDA significantly correlated with longer patient survival only in patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy, and not in the no-adjuvant-chemotherapy group. These data suggest an interaction between adjuvant chemotherapy with gemcitabine and SMPD3 expression. Furthermore, we found that gemcitabine stimulates both the enzymatic activity and expression of SMPD3 in vitro in a panel of human PDA cell lines. Our results suggest a crucial role for SMPD3 in facilitating a protumorigenic environment during PDA progression and implicate SMPD3 as a potential novel biomarker for guiding individualized chemotherapeutic regimens for PDA patients.
Citation Format: Audrey M. Hendley, Atsushi Urano, Natanya R. Kerper, Phat Duong, Peter Bailey, David K. Chang, Andrew V. Biankin, David W. Dawson, Grace Kim, Robert L. Raffai, Matthias Hebrok. Smpd3 augments chemotherapy and thwarts PDA progression [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR Special Conference on Pancreatic Cancer: Advances in Science and Clinical Care; 2019 Sept 6-9; Boston, MA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2019;79(24 Suppl):Abstract nr C20.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Atsushi Urano
- 1University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,
| | | | - Phat Duong
- 1University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,
| | - Peter Bailey
- 2University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom,
| | | | | | | | - Grace Kim
- 1University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,
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5
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Tammela T, Sanchez-Rivera FJ, Cetinbas NM, Wu K, Joshi NS, Helenius K, Park Y, Azimi R, Kerper NR, Wesselhoeft RA, Gu X, Schmidt L, Cornwall-Brady M, Yilmaz ÖH, Xue W, Katajisto P, Bhutkar A, Jacks T. A Wnt-producing niche drives proliferative potential and progression in lung adenocarcinoma. Nature 2017; 545:355-359. [PMID: 28489818 PMCID: PMC5903678 DOI: 10.1038/nature22334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The heterogeneity of cellular states in cancer has been linked to drug resistance, cancer progression and presence of cancer cells with properties of normal tissue stem cells1,2. Secreted Wnt signals maintain stem cells in various epithelial tissues, including in lung development and regeneration3–5. Here we report that murine and human lung adenocarcinomas display hierarchical features with two distinct subpopulations, one with high Wnt signaling activity and another forming a niche that provides the Wnt ligand. The Wnt responder cells showed increased tumour propagation ability, suggesting that they have features of normal tissue stem cells. Genetic perturbation of Wnt production or signaling suppressed tumour progression. Small molecule inhibitors targeting essential post-translational modification of Wnt reduced tumour growth and dramatically decreased proliferative potential of the lung cancer cells, leading to improved survival of tumour-bearing mice. These results indicate that strategies for disrupting pathways that maintain stem-like and niche cell phenotypes can translate into effective anti-cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuomas Tammela
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Francisco J Sanchez-Rivera
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Naniye Malli Cetinbas
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Katherine Wu
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Nikhil S Joshi
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Katja Helenius
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Yoona Park
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Roxana Azimi
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Natanya R Kerper
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - R Alexander Wesselhoeft
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Xin Gu
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Leah Schmidt
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Milton Cornwall-Brady
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Ömer H Yilmaz
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Wen Xue
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA.,RNA Therapeutics Institute, Program in Molecular Medicine, and Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, USA
| | - Pekka Katajisto
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, 14183 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Arjun Bhutkar
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Tyler Jacks
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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6
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Joshi NS, Akama-Garren EH, Lu Y, Lee DY, Chang GP, Li A, DuPage M, Tammela T, Kerper NR, Farago AF, Robbins R, Crowley DM, Bronson RT, Jacks T. Regulatory T Cells in Tumor-Associated Tertiary Lymphoid Structures Suppress Anti-tumor T Cell Responses. Immunity 2015; 43:579-90. [PMID: 26341400 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2015.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 316] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Infiltration of regulatory T (Treg) cells into many tumor types correlates with poor patient prognoses. However, mechanisms of intratumoral Treg cell function remain to be elucidated. We investigated Treg cell function in a genetically engineered mouse model of lung adenocarcinoma and found that Treg cells suppressed anti-tumor responses in tumor-associated tertiary lymphoid structures (TA-TLSs). TA-TLSs have been described in human lung cancers, but their function remains to be determined. TLSs in this model were spatially associated with >90% of tumors and facilitated interactions between T cells and tumor-antigen-presenting dendritic cells (DCs). Costimulatory ligand expression by DCs and T cell proliferation rates increased in TA-TLSs upon Treg cell depletion, leading to tumor destruction. Thus, we propose that Treg cells in TA-TLSs can inhibit endogenous immune responses against tumors, and targeting these cells might provide therapeutic benefit for cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhil S Joshi
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Elliot H Akama-Garren
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Yisi Lu
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Da-Yae Lee
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Gregory P Chang
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Amy Li
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Michel DuPage
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Tuomas Tammela
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Natanya R Kerper
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Anna F Farago
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Rebecca Robbins
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Denise M Crowley
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Roderick T Bronson
- Department of Pathology, Tufts University School of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA
| | - Tyler Jacks
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA.
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