An assessment of ectomycorrhizal fungal communities in Tasmanian temperate high-altitude Eucalyptus delegatensis forest reveals a dominance of the Cortinariaceae

Fungal diversity of Australian eucalypt forests remains underexplored. We investigated the ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungal community characteristics of declining temperate eucalypt forests in Tasmania. Within this context, we explored the diversity of EcM fungi of two forest types in the northern highlands in the east and west of the island. We hypothesised that EcM fungal community richness and composition would differ between forest type but that the Cortinariaceae would be the dominant family irrespective of forest type. We proposed that EcM richness would be greater in the wet sclerophyll forest than the dry sclerophyll forest type. Using both sporocarps and EcM fungi from root tips amplified by PCR and sequenced in the rDNA ITS region, 175 EcM operational taxonomic units were identified of which 97 belonged to the Cortinariaceae. The Cortinariaceae were the most diverse family, in both the above and below ground communities. Three distinct fungal assemblages occurred within the wet and dry sclerophyll forest types and two geographic regions that were studied, although this pattern did not remain when only the root tip data were analysed. EcM sporocarp richness was unusually higher than root tip richness and EcM richness did not significantly differ among forest types. The results are discussed in relation to the importance of the Cortinariaceae and the drivers of EcM fungal community composition within these forests.

Evaluating carbon storage in restoration plantings in the Tasmanian Midlands, a highly modified agricultural landscape

In recent years there have been incentives to reforest cleared farmland in southern Australia to establish carbon sinks, but the rates of carbon sequestration by such plantings are uncertain at local scales. We used a chronosequence of 21 restoration plantings aged from 6 to 34 years old to measure how above- and belowground carbon relates to the age of the planting. We also compared the amount of carbon in these plantings with that in nearby remnant forest and in adjacent cleared pasture. In terms of total carbon storage in biomass, coarse woody debris and soil, young restoration plantings contained on average much less biomass carbon than the remnant forest (72 versus 203 Mg C ha–1), suggesting that restoration plantings had not yet attained maximum biomass carbon. Mean biomass carbon accumulation during the first 34 years after planting was estimated as 4.2 ± 0.6 Mg C ha–1 year–1, with the 10th and 90th quantile regression estimates being 2.1 and 8.8 Mg C ha–1 year–1. There were no significant differences in soil organic carbon (0–30-cm depth) between the plantings, remnant forest and pasture, with all values in the range of 59–67 Mg ha–1. This is in line with other studies showing that soil carbon is slow to respond to changes in land use. Based on our measured rates of biomass carbon accumulation, it would require ~50 years to accumulate the average carbon content of remnant forests. However, it is more realistic to assume the rates will slow with time, and it could take over 100 years to attain a new equilibrium of biomass carbon stocks.

The therapeutic potential of anti-cytokine antibodies in the treatment of chronic inflammatory disease

The outcome of inflammatory diseases is likely to be dependent upon the relative balance of pro- versus anti-inflammatory cytokines. Control of this balance through the use of anti-cytokine monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) promises to be an effective means of disease therapy. The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) or inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) with anti- tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) mAb has dramatically ameliorated disease symptoms, indicating that such a treatment approach can be highly successful. Similarly, based on animal studies, the use of neutralising anti-interleukin (IL)-12 mAb may prove efficacious in a number of inflammatory disorders, particularly for IBD.

Pigment dynamics during cold-induced photoinhibition of Acacia melanoxylon

Long-term acclimation of photo- and pigment-chemistry was investigated in a naturally-regenerating stand of Acacia melanoxylon R.Br. ex Ait. A pronounced decrease in photochemical efficiency of A. melanoxylon saplings was observed between autumn and winter in both thinned and unthinned treatments, but the decrease was more severe in the thinned treatment. Associated pigment changes in the unthinned treatment included a decrease in total chlorophyll content and a rise in chlorophyll a : b. Similar acclimation occurred in the thinned treatment with additional increase in zeaxanthin per unit chlorophyll observed. Saplings in the thinned treatment were exposed to lower minimum temperatures, more hours of frost and higher light intensities in the mid- to lower-crown. Growth chamber studies of the short-term acclimation of photo- and pigment-chemistry were conducted in a low / high light and cold / warm temperature factorial experiment. Photochemical efficiency and quantum yield adjusted within one day and then remained constant for 10 d in response to the imposed treatments. Chlorophyll concentration had decreased in all treatments by day 2 in the growth chambers, and subsequently increased in warm, but not in cold, treatments, irrespective of light level by day 10 in the growth chambers. The concentration of lutein-5,6-epoxide decreased in response to the cold-high light treatment and increased in response to other treatments by day 10 in the growth chambers, consistent with a function in sustained photoprotection in leaves of shade-adapted species. Our experiments indicated that A. melanoxylon is susceptible to cold-induced photoinhibition under cool temperatures (2-8°C) and moderate light intensities (450 μmol m^-2 s^-1).

Chronic colitis in IL-10-/- mice: insufficient counter regulation of a Th1 response

IL-10-deficient (IL-10-/-) mice, generated by a gene-targeted mutation, develop abnormal immune responses as a result of uncontrolled interactions between antigen presenting cells and lymphocytes. The studies reviewed herein have focused on the enterocolitis that spontaneously develops in IL-10-/- mice. Not unexpectedly, heightened production of proinflammatory mediators accompanied pathologic changes in the gastrointestinal tract of young mutants. In a series of studies, the proinflammatory mediators responsible for initiating the pathogenic response were distinguished from those that were elicited as a consequence of persistent inflammation. We have also investigated the possibility that different mediators are involved in the inductive versus the maintenance phase of disease. The findings of these mechanistic studies as they relate to our understanding of progressive inflammatory disease and the role of IL-10 in controlling the acute and chronic stages are discussed.

The role of IL-10 in inflammatory bowel disease: "of mice and men"

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a generic term typically used to describe a group of idiopathic inflammatory intestinal conditions in humans that are generally divided into Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Although the etiology of these diseases remains unknown, a number of rodent models of IBD have recently been identified, all sharing the concept that the development of chronic intestinal inflammation occurs as a consequence of alterations in the immune system that lead to a failure of normal immunoregulation in the intestine. On the basis of these models, it has been hypothesized that the development of IBD in humans may be related to a dysregulated immune response to normal flora in the gut. Immunodeficient scid mice injected with CD4+ CD45RB(high) T cells and mice deficient in interleukin (IL)-10 (IL-10-/-) are among the rodent models of IBD. In both models, there is inflammation and evidence of a Th1-like response in the large intestine, characterized by CD4+ T-cell and macrophage infiltrates, and elevated levels of interferon-gamma. Because IL-10 is an immunomodulatory cytokine that is capable of controlling Th1-like responses, the role of IL-10 was investigated in these models. IL-10 was shown to be important in regulating the development of intestinal inflammation in both models. These results provided key data that supported initiation of clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of IL-10 in patients with IBD.

IL-12, but not IFN-gamma, plays a major role in sustaining the chronic phase of colitis in IL-10-deficient mice

IL-10-deficient (IL-10(-/-)) mice develop chronic enterocolitis mediated by CD4+ Th1 cells producing IFN-gamma. Because IL-12 can promote Th1 development and IFN-gamma production, the ability of neutralizing anti-IL-12 mAb to modulate colitis in IL-10(-/-) mice was investigated. Anti-IL-12 mAb treatment completely prevented disease development in young IL-10(-/-) mice. Treatment of adult mice resulted in significant amelioration of established disease accompanied by reduced numbers of mesenteric lymph node and colonic CD4+ T cells and of mesenteric lymph node T cells spontaneously producing IFN-gamma. In contrast, anti-IFN-gamma mAb had minimal effect on disease reversal, despite a significant preventative effect in young mice. These findings suggested that IL-12 sustains colitis by supporting the expansion of differentiated Th1 cells that mediate disease independently of their IFN-gamma production. This conclusion was supported by the finding that anti-IL-12 mAb greatly diminished the ability of a limited number of CD4+ T cells expressing high levels of CD45RB from diseased IL-10(-/-) mice to expand and cause colitis in recombination-activating gene-2(-/-) recipients, while anti-IFN-gamma mAb had no effect. Furthermore, IL-12 could support pathogenic IL-10(-/-) T cells stimulated in vitro in the absence of IL-2. While these studies show that IL-12 plays an important role in sustaining activated Th1 cells during the chronic phase of disease, the inability of anti-IL-12 mAb to abolish established colitis or completely prevent disease transfer by Thl cells suggests that additional factors contribute to disease maintenance.

Studies with IL-10-/- mice: an overview

Our studies have elucidated, in part, the mechanism whereby persistent stimulation by normal enteric antigens leads to the development of chronic enterocolitis in interleukin 10-deficient (IL-10-/-) mice. This disease is mediated by IL-10-/- CD4+ T cells as evidenced by their ability to transfer colitis to immunodeficient RAG-2-/- mice. Furthermore, the CD4+ T cells recovered from the affected colons of IL-10-/- mice consisted of a highly polarized Th1-like population because they produced interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) but not IL-4. We found that enterocolitis could be prevented if 3-week-old mutants were treated for 6-8 weeks with either anti-IL-12 or anti-IFN-gamma monoclonal antibodies (mAb). These results were consistent with the findings of in vitro studies suggesting that IFN-gamma and, in particular, IL-12 direct the differentiation of naive T cells toward a Th1 phenotype. Apparently, the uncontrolled production of IL-12 and IFN-gamma by accessory cells and T cells, respectively, in IL-10-/- mice ultimately resulted in the excessive generation and activation of Th1 cells, hence, immunopathology. IL-10-/- mice have also been used to evaluate the importance of IL-10 in regulating immune responses outside of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. In these studies, IL-10-/- mice were challenged with a variety of foreign antigens using different routes of administration. In general, the results repeatedly demonstrated that a major function of IL-10 is to protect the host from the harmful side effects of an overly zealous immune-inflammatory response. However, other studies have confirmed speculations that the potent immunosuppressive activities of IL-10 may, under certain circumstances, increase the host's susceptibility to infection with certain types of pathogenic organisms.

T helper cell 1-type CD4+ T cells, but not B cells, mediate colitis in interleukin 10-deficient mice

Mice rendered deficient in the production of interleukin 10 (IL-10-/-) develop a chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that predominates in the colon and shares histopathological features with human IBD. Our aim was to identify which cell type(s) can mediate colitis in IL-10-/- mice. We detected an influx of immunoglobulin-positive cells into the colon and the presence of colon-reactive antibodies in the serum of IL-10-/- mice. To assess a pathogenic role for B cells, we generated a B cell-deficient (B-/-) strain of IL-10-/- mice. B-/-IL-10-/- mice acquired a severe colitis analogous to that IL-10-/- mice, implying that B cells were not the primary mediator of IBD in this model. A series of cell transfer experiments was performed to assess a pathogenic role for T cells. When IL-10-/- T cell-enriched lamina propria lymphocytes (LPL) or intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) were transferred into immunodeficient recombinase-activating gene (RAG)-2-/- recipients, a mild to severe colitis developed, depending on the cell number transferred. Lymphocytes recovered from the colon of transplanted RAG-2-/- mice with colitis were predominantly alpha beta TCR+CD4+, including a large proportion of CD4+CD8 alpha + cells. These cells were also CD45RB-/low and CD44+, indicative of an activated/memory population. Individual populations of CD4+CD8 alpha-, CD4+CD8 alpha + and CD4-CD8 alpha + T cells were then isolated from the lamina propria compartment of IL-10-/- mice and transferred into RAG-2-/- recipients. Only IL-10-/- CD4-expressing LPL, including both the CD4+CD8 alpha- and CD4+CD8 alpha + populations, induced colitis in recipient mice. Interferon-gamma, but little to no IL-4, was produced by CD4+CD8 alpha- and CD4+CD8 alpha + LPL recovered from the inflamed colons of RAG-2-/- recipients implicating alpha T helper cell 1 (TH1)-mediated response. We thus conclude that colitis in IL-10-/- mice is predominantly mediated by TH1-type alpha beta TCR+ T cells expressing CD4 alone, or in combination with the CD8 alpha molecule.

Interleukin 10 but not interleukin 4 is a natural suppressant of cutaneous inflammatory responses

We have examined the role of endogenously produced interleukin (IL) 4 and IL-10 in the regulation of inflammatory and immune reactions in the skin. In these experiments, irritant and contact hypersensitivity (CH) responses were elicited in mice with targeted disruptions of the IL-4 (IL-4T) or IL-10 (IL-10T) gene. Our study showed that IL-4T and wild-type (wt) mice exhibited equivalent responses to the irritant croton oil. In contrast, the response of IL-10T mice challenged with croton oil was abnormally increased. When IL-10T mice were exposed to a higher dose of irritant, irreversible tissue damage occurred. By comparison, any treatment of wt mice with croton oil resulted in far less tissue damage and resolution of inflammation. Neutralizing antibody studies demonstrated that the necrosis that occurred in IL-10T mice was due to the overproduction of tumor necrosis factor. The anti-tumor necrosis factor antibody treatment of IL-10T mice did not significantly reduce the edema or the influx of inflammatory cells, suggesting that these changes were due to the uncontrolled production of other proinflammatory cytokines. T cell-dependent immune responses were also evaluated using the contact sensitizer oxazolone. The response of IL-4T mice did not differ from wt mice. In contrast, IL-10T mice mounted an exaggerated CH response, increased in both magnitude and duration as compared with wt mice. Based on these studies, we have concluded that IL-10, but not IL-4, is a natural suppressant of irritant responses and of CH, and it limits immunopathologic damage in the skin.

Phenotypic mapping of the chicken embryonic thymic microenvironment developing within an organ culture system

The chicken thymic microenvironment, as it developed in an embryonic thymus organ culture system, was phenotypically mapped using a panel of mAb defining both epithelial and nonepithelial stromal cell antigens. We have previously reported that thymocyte proliferation and differentiation with proceed for up to 6-8 days in thymus organ culture, hence demonstrating the functional integrity of the thymic microenvironment in vitro. During this time, the stromal component reflected that of the normal embryo with cortical and medullary epithelial areas readily identifiable by both morphology and surface-antigen expression. An abundance of subcapsular and cortical epithelial antigens was detected in the cultured thymus, particularly those normally expressed by the epithelium lining the capsule, trabeculae, and vascular regions (type I epithelium) in the adult and embryonic thymus. Medullary epithelial antigens developed in organ culture, although were present in lower frequency than observed in the age-matched embryonic thymus. MHC class II expression by both epithelial and nonepithelial cells was maintained at high levels throughout the culture period. With increasing time in culture, the ratio of epithelial to nonepithelial cells decreased, concurrent with a decrease in thymocyte frequency and suggestive of a bidirectional interaction between these two cell types. Thus, a functionally intact thymic microenvironment appears to be maintained in embryonic thymus organ culture, a model that is currently being exploited to assess the role of stromal antigens, as defined by our mAb, in the process of thymopoiesis.

Delineation of chicken thymocytes by CD3-TCR complex, CD4 and CD8 antigen expression reveals phylogenically conserved and novel thymocyte subsets

To further define the relationship between thymocyte subsets and their developmental sequence, multi-parameter flow cytometry was used to determine the distribution of the CD3-TCR complex and the accessory molecules CD4 and CD8 on chicken thymocytes. As in mammals, adult thymocytes could be subdivided into CD3-, CD3lo, and CD3hi staining populations. CD4 and CD8 distribution on such populations revealed the presence of CD3-CD4+CD8- and CD3-CD4-CD8+ thymocytes, putative precursors to CD4+CD8+ cells, detectable in the adult and at high frequency during ontogeny. Of particular interest was the existence of CD3lo expression on CD4+CD8- and CD4-CD8+, and in some instances, on CD4-CD8- thymocytes. Such phenotypes are not easily detectable in the mammalian thymus but were readily observed in both adult and embryonic chicken thymus from 16 days of embryogenesis. Further analysis of the TCR lineage of these CD3lo cells revealed that they were essentially all of the alpha beta TCR type. Mature CD3hi thymocytes were found within the CD4+CD8+ and CD4+CD8- and CD4-CD8+ subsets. Both alpha beta and gamma delta TCR lineage thymocytes were detected within all CD4- and CD8-defined subsets, thus identifying novel thymocyte subsets in the chicken thymus, namely alpha beta TCR+CD4-CD8- and gamma delta TCR+ CD4+CD8- cells. Hence, this analysis of chicken thymocytes, while confirming the phylogenically conserved nature of the thymus, has revealed novel T cell subsets, providing further insight into the complexity of mainstream thymocyte maturation pathways.

Kinetics of chicken embryonic thymocyte development in ovo and in organ culture

Thymocyte development was monitored in an embryonic thymus organ culture system to establish a model in the chicken in which the functional nature of the thymic microenvironment could be assessed. Thymus lobes were removed from 10-day-old embryos and cultured for 2-10 days. Cell yield increased to a maximum in 4-8 days of culture with a corresponding decrease in average cell size. An initial thymocyte population of predominantly CD3-CD4-CD8- cells gave rise to all CD3/CD4/CD8-defined subpopulations in vitro, maintaining high levels of CD3-CD4-CD8+ and CD3+CD4-CD8+ cells and a low representation of CD3-CD4+CD8-, CD3+CD4+CD8-, CD3-CD4+CD8+ and CD3+CD4+CD8+ thymocytes. This is the first observation of a CD3-CD4+CD8- population in the chicken. Developmental kinetics of CD3+ cells were similar to that in the embryo, suggesting that the in vitro environment is sufficient to promote and maintain thymocyte maturation. Thymocytes of both the gamma delta and alpha beta T cell receptor (TcR) lineages developed in that order, confirming in ovo data and the lineage potential of the first wave of thymocyte precursors. One unusual finding was a relative accumulation of gamma delta TcR+ thymocytes in culture, incorporating all CD4/CD8 subsets, including a previously undetected population, CD4+CD8-. This may indicate a favorable developmental environment or simply a lack of normal cellular emigration. A detailed comparison with T cell development in the embryo demonstrated that the chicken thymus organ culture system reflects thymic events in ovo during a limited time period and thus should prove useful in the identification of functionally relevant thymic molecules.

Phenotypic analysis of the chicken thymic microenvironment during ontogenic development

The development of monoclonal antibodies (mAb) reactive with the thymic microenvironment has identified distinct subpopulations within the stromal component, but the function of these subregions in intrathymic T-cell differentiation remains essentially an enigma. In this study, we have used such a panel of mAb to examine the chicken thymus during ontogenic development to gain insight into the contributions of these thymic regions to the distinct phases of T-cell development and to further characterize the development of this organ. Our reagents have demonstrated the complex differentiation of the primitive endodermal epithelium into more specialized structures and the development of other thymic stromal components from mesectodermal cells. We also describe molecules localized to the subcapsular and perivascular regions, which have an ontogenic expression corresponding to the early localization and stimulation of thymic precursors and another molecule on the medullary vasculature expressed corresponding to the exit of mature cells from the thymus. In addition, two markers of distinct medullary epithelial clusters are initially expressed corresponding to the appearance of T-cell receptor-1 (TcR-1) and TcR-2 positive cells in the medulla, respectively. These mAb potentially represent excellent reagents for further definition of the thymic modulation of T-cell differentiation.

Water relations of the parasite: host relationship between the mistletoe Amyema linophyllum (Fenzl) Tieghem and Casuarina obesa Miq

Seasonal and diurnal gas exchange and water relations of Amyema linophyllum and its host Casuarina obesa were studied at Gingin Western Australia. As recorded elsewhere for other species of mistletoe, stomatal conductances and transpiration rates were consistently higher in parasite than host, but assimilation rates did not differ significantly between partners, and water use efficiency was accordingly substantially lower in the parasite. Parallel responses of the species to environmental conditions suggested closely coordinated stomatal behaviour. However, sunlit and artifically shaded clumps of Amyema maintained high leaf conductances even when foliage fell below turgor loss point, yet their tissue capacitance values indicated maintenance of greater tissue water reserves during stress than in the host. Pressure-volume relationships indicated that differences in tissue water relations were unlikely to contribute significantly to the observed gradient in leaf water potential between partners. An experiment measuring changes in water potential of freshly detached host: parasite systems cut with the host shoot end immersed in water indicated that the haustorial junction was the principal site of resistance to transpiration-driven water flow into the parasite. A parallel experiment on intact attached shoots with mistletoe clumps enclosed and darkened just before dawn, demonstrated that, once the host commenced rapid transpiration, the water potential gradient between partners became reversed.

Defective phagocytosis in insulin controlled diabetics: evidence for a reaction between glucose and opsonising proteins

Neutrophils from diabetic patients controlled with insulin showed impaired phagocytosis of a yeast, Candida guilliermondii. The defect was detected by measuring the initial rate of phagocytosis at optimal concentrations of phagocytes and organisms in autologous plasma. By mixing normal neutrophils in diabetic plasma and vice versa both cellular and plasma abnormalities were shown. The defect was reproduced by incubating normal plasma at a D-glucose concentration of 15 mmol/l for 3 h or for shorter periods at higher concentrations of glucose. The data suggest that defective phagocytosis is partly due to a reaction between glucose and the plasma proteins concerned with opsonisation. Defective phagocytosis may be important not only in coping with infections but also in other diabetic complications as plasma proteins are concerned with the removal of damaged or effete cells as well as foreign antigens.