Impact of tick-borne Anaplasma phagocytophilum infections in calves of moose (Alces alces) in southern Norway

The Gram-negative, obligate intracellular tick-transmitted pathogen Anaplasma phagocytophilum can cause acute febrile diseases in humans and domestic animals. The expansion of the tick Ixodes ricinus (Linnaeus, 1758) in northern Europe due to climate change is of serious concern for animal and human health. The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of A. phagocytophilum infection in moose Alces alces (Linnaeus) calves by evaluating the carcass weights of infected and non-infected animals and examining animal tissues samples for co-infections with either species of Babesia Starcovici, 1893 or bacteria of the genus Bartonella. The carcasses of 68 free-ranging moose calves were weighed by hunters during the hunting seasons from 2014 to 2017 in two regions in southern Norway and spleen samples were collected. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was detected in moose sampled from locations infected with ticks with a prevalence of 82% (n = 46). The carcass weights of A. phagocytophilum-infected calves (n = 46) and non-infected (n = 22) calves were compared. Although the average weight of infected calves (45.6 kg) was lower than that of non-infected calves (46.5 kg), the difference was not statistically significant. Three different variants of the bacterium 16S rRNA gene were identified. The average weight of animals infected with variant I was 49.9 kg, whereas that of animals infected with variant III was 42.0 kg, but the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.077). Co-infections of A. phagocytophilum with Bartonella spp. or with Babesia spp. were found in 20 and two calves, respectively. A triple infection was found in two calves. Sequence analysis of the 18S rRNA gene of Babesia-positive samples revealed the presence of Babesia cf. odocoilei (Emerson et Wright, 1970). Strains of Bartonella closely related to Bartonella bovis (Bermond, Boulouis, Heller, Laere, Monteil, Chomel, Sander, Dehio et Piemont, 2002) were identified based on phylogenetic analysis of the gltA and rpoB genes. The loss of body mass in moose calves in the tick-infected site was probably influenced by multiple factors.

Prevalence and co-infection with tick-borne Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia spp. in red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in Southern Norway

Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia spp. are causative agents of tick-borne infections that are increasingly considered as a threat to animal and public health. To assess the role of cervids in the maintenance of zoonotic pathogens in Norway, we investigated the prevalence of A. phagocytophilum and Babesia spp. in free-ranging roe deer and red deer. Initial screening of spleen samples of 104 animals by multiplex real-time PCR targeting the major surface protein (msp2) gene and 18S rRNA revealed the presence of A. phagocytophilum infection in 81.1% red deer (Cervus elaphus) and 88.1% roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and Babesia spp. parasites in 64.9% red deer and 83.6% roe deer, respectively. Co-infections were found in 62.2% red deer and 79.9% roe deer. Nested PCR and sequence analysis of partial msp4 and 18S rRNA genes were performed for molecular characterization of A. phagocytophilum strains and Babesia species. A total of eleven A. phagocytophilum msp4 gene sequence variants were identified: five different variants were 100% identical to corresponding A. phagocytophilum sequences deposited in the GenBank database, while other six sequence variants had unique nucleotide polymorphisms. Sequence analysis of the 18S rRNA gene demonstrated the presence of multiple Babesia species, including Babesia capreoli, Babesia divergens, Babesia venatorum and Babesia odocoilei/Babesia cf. odocoilei. This study is the first report demonstrating the prevalence and molecular characterization of A. phagocytophilum strains and Babesia species in roe deer and red deer in Norway. The high infection and co-infection rates with A. phagocytophilum and Babesia spp. in red deer and roe deer suggest that these cervids may play an important role in the transmission of single and multiple pathogens.

Infections with Bartonella spp. in free-ranging cervids and deer keds (Lipoptena cervi) in Norway

Bartonella bacteria are arthropod-borne and can cause long-term bacteremia in humans and animals. The predominant arthropod vectors and the mode of transmission for many novel Bartonella species remain elusive or essentially unstudied. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of Bartonella spp. in Norwegian cervids and deer keds (Lipoptena cervi) and to characterise the bacteria by sequencing of the partial gltA gene and 16 S-23 S rRNA intergenic spacer region (ITS) in order to evaluate a possible transmission route. A total of 260 spleen samples and 118 deer keds were collected from cervids by hunters in the Southern part of Norway. Bartonella DNA was detected in 10.5% of spleen samples of roe deer (n = 67), in 35.1% red deer (n = 37), in 35.9% moose (n = 156), and in 85% pools of adult wingless deer ked (n = 59). Two Bartonella lineages were identified based on phylogenetic analysis of the gltA gene and ITS region sequences.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection in moose (Alces alces) in Norway

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a tick-borne bacterium that infects a wide range of animal species. The aim of our study was to investigate the prevalence of A. phagocytophilum in Norwegian moose Alces alces and to characterize the bacteria by sequencing of partial msp4 and 16S rRNA genes. Hunters collected spleen samples from 99 moose of different ages during 2013 and 2014 in two areas: Aust-Agder County (n = 70) where Ixodes ricinus ticks are abundant and Oppland County (n = 29) where ticks were either absent, or abundance very low. A. phagocytophilum was detected only in moose from the I. ricinus - abundant area. The overall prevalence of infection according to 16S rRNA and msp4 gene-based PCR was 41.4% and 31.4% respectively. Sequence analysis of the partial 16S rRNA and msp4 gene revealed two and eight different sequence types respectively. Four of eight msp4 sequence types determined in this study were unique, while others were identical to sequences derived from other ruminants and ticks. The present study indicates that moose could be a potential wildlife reservoir of A. phagocytophilum in Norway.

Prevalence and diversity of Babesia spp. in questing Ixodes ricinus ticks from Norway

BACKGROUND

Ixodes ricinus ticks transmit Babesia species to vertebrate hosts. Using molecular tools we were able to detect the presence of this piroplasmid in its vector. The aims of this study were to investigate the prevalence and identity of Babesia species in questing ticks collected in various areas of Norway.

METHODS

DNA from questing l. ricinus ticks were examined with a realtime PCR for the presence of Babesia. Positive samples of tick DNA were identified to species using PCR, and sequence analysis.

RESULTS

From a total of 1908 questing l. ricinus ticks, 17 (0.9%) indicated the presence of Babesia spp. after realtime-PCR screening. Ixodes ricinus harbouring Babesia spp. was detected in 9 out of 22 localities. Further molecular analyses of DNA from these positive ticks indicate the presence of Babesia venatorum, B. divergens, B. capreoli and a currently undescribed Babesia in Norwegian ticks. The most prevalent was B. venatorum found in 71% of the positive ticks.

CONCLUSIONS

A total of 17 out of 1908 (0.9%) ticks were positive for Babesia. Our data confirm that there are several Babesia species in ticks in Norway. Babesia venatorum was the most prevalent. This species has a zoonotic potential and may cause human babesiosis following a tick bite.

Sex-biased dispersal in a northern ungulate population

In most mammals dispersal is male-biased and in many polygynous ungulates female philopatry and matrilineal grouping involve small-scale genetic structure. We have through sex-related differences in microsatellite allele distribution addressed sex-biased dispersal in a spatially expanding northern ungulate population. The Norwegian red deer population (Cervus elaphus atlanticus) has the last hundred years grown substantially and expanded spatially after a major decline from 300 to 100 years ago. Previous Bayesian analyses suggest a present division of genetic variation into five geographically separated subpopulations. Among these subpopulations the overall Fst values were 0.067 (SE=0.014) for males and 0.094 (SE=0.017) for females. Pairwise Fst values were significantly higher for females than males, demonstrating a stronger genetic structure among females, and that dispersal has been lower in females than males. Accordingly, a higher number of male than female first generation dispersers were identified among the five subpopulations using Bayesian assignment with prior population information, but significantly so only with relaxed stringency levels of assignment. The identified male-biased dispersal distances varied from 30 to 300 kilometers suggesting male biased dispersal on a large scale in red deer.

Similarity of Campylobacter coli from pigs, poultry and man

Campylobacteriosis is one of the most frequently occurring acute gastroenteritis in humans and 10% are caused by Campylobacter coli. A total of 136 isolates of C. coli from humans, poultry, and pigs were identified by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and genetically characterized and compared by ribotyping. Automatic riboprints were performed with the PstI restriction enzyme and RiboPrinter. All poultry, pig and human strains represented a heterogeneous spectre of ribotypes. Ten of 23 human strains (43%) could be given DUP-ID from the library represented by DUP-PSTI-1200 (n = 7), DUP-PST1-1201 (n = 2) and DUP-PSTI-1211 (n = 1). Eighteen of 28 (64%) poultry strains were given a DUP-ID. Three isolates were closely related to human strains DUP-PSTI-1201 (n = 2) and DUP-PSTI-1200 (n = 1) and may play an important role in the epidemiology of campylobacteriosis. Nineteen of 85 pig isolates (23%) could be given a DUP-ID, but none were common to human isolates. An overlap was found among poultry and pig isolates with DUP-PSTI-1182 and DUP-PSTI-1140.

Prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in questing Ixodes ricinus ticks in relation to the density of wild cervids

Background

Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and Anaplasma phagocytophilum have been considered as pathogens in animals and humans. The role of wild cervids in the epidemiology is not clear. We analyzed questing Ixodes ricinus ticks collected in spring for these pathogens from sites with high (Fjelløyvær and Strøm) and low density (Tjore, Hinnebu and Jomfruland) of wild cervids to study the spread of the pathogens in questing ticks.

Methods

For detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum a 77-bp fragment in the msp2 gene was used. Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato was performed using the FL6 and FL7 primers according to sequences of conserved regions of the fla gene. The OspA gene located on the linear 49-kb plasmid was used as target in multiplex PCR for genotyping. Genospecies-specific primers were used in the PCR for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, B. afzelii and B. garinii.

Results

Infection rates with Borrelia spp. were significantly lower at Fjelløyvær and Strøm compared to Tjore and Hinnebu; Fjelløyvær vs. Tjore (χ² = 20.27, p < 0.0001); Fjelløyvær vs. Hinnebu (χ² = 24.04, p < 0.0001); Strøm vs. Tjore (χ² = 11.47, p = 0.0007) and Strøm vs. Hinnebu (χ² = 16.63, p < 0.0001). The Borrelia genospecies were dominated by. B. afzelii (82%) followed by B. garinii (9.7%) and B. burgdorferi sensu stricto (6.9%). B. burgdorferi s.s. was only found on the island of Jomfruland. The infection rate of Anaplasma phagocytophilum showed the following figures; Fjelløyvær vs Hinnebu (χ² = 16.27, p = 0.0001); Strøm vs. Tjore (χ² = 13.16, p = 0.0003); Strøm vs. Hinnebu (χ² = 34.71, p < 0.0001); Fjelløyvær vs. Tjore (χ² = 3.19, p = 0.0742) and Fjelløyvær vs. Støm (χ² = 5.06, p = 0.0245). Wild cervids may serve as a reservoir for A. phagocytophilum. Jomfruland, with no wild cervids but high levels of migrating birds and rodents, harboured both B. burgdorferi s.l. and A. phagocytophilum in questing I. ricinus ticks. Birds and rodents may play an important role in maintaining the pathogens on Jomfruland.

Conclusion

The high abundance of roe deer and red deer on the Norwegian islands of Fjelløyvær and Strøm may reduce the infection rate of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in host seeking Ixodes ricinus, in contrast to mainland sites at Hinnebu and Tjore with moderate abundance of wild cervids. The infection rate of Anaplasma phagocytophilum showed the opposite result with a high prevalence in questing ticks in localities with a high density of wild cervids compared to localities with lower density.

Similarity of Campylobacter lari among human, animal, and water isolates in Norway

A total of 49 isolates of Campylobacter lari from human, poultry, ducks, pigs, and water were genetically characterized. The species were identified by biotyping and multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Automatic riboprints were performed with the PstI restriction enzyme and RiboPrinter. The identification of the isolates was predicted when the corresponding pattern matched one of the patterns of the DuPont identification (DUP-ID) library and was then assigned an identification number. Thirty-five (71.4%) of the isolates were given a DUP-ID number. The isolates from water and animals showed a high degree of similarity to the human strains represented by DUP-PST1-1010, DUP-PST1-1166, DUP-PST1-1178, and DUP-PST1-1081. Some profiles (i.e., DUP-PST1-2021 and DUP-PST1-1184) were found only among the human isolates. Dendrogram analysis using BioNumerics grouped isolates into three main clusters. One of those clusters contained DUP-PST1-2021, DUP-PST1-1184, and DUP-PST1-1081, which was found in both humans and ducks. A second cluster generated DUP-PST1-1010, found in both humans and poultry, and DUP-PST1-1079, found in water. The third cluster consisted of two strains, DUP-PST1-1066 and DUP-PST1-1078, originating in humans, animals, and water. Three human strains and two poultry strains were diverse and formed their own clusters and could not be assigned a DUP-ID number. Because of the similarity of C. lari isolated from humans, poultry, ducks, pigs, and water, as well as the limited knowledge of environmental survival and its virulence factors, special hygienic precautions should be taken to avoid the risk of transmitting Campylobacter.

Ribotype diversity of Listeria monocytogenes isolates from two salmon processing plants in Norway

The purpose of this study was to use automated ribotyping procedure to track Listeria monocytogenes transmission in the cold smoked fish production chain and to characterize L. monocytogenes subtypes associated with the salmon processing industry. A total of 104 isolates, which had previously been obtained from a raw fish slaughter and processing plant (plant B) and an adjacent, downstream, salmon smoking operation (plant A), were characterized. These isolates had been obtained through a longitudinal study on Listeria presence, which covered a 31-week period, in both plants. Isolates had been obtained from samples taken from different machinery used throughout the production process. In addition, six isolates obtained from products produced in plant A two years after the initial study were included, so that a total of 110 isolates were characterized. Automated ribotyping was performed using both the restriction enzymes EcoRI and PvuII to increase the discriminatory power. The 110 L. monocytogenes isolates could be divided into 11 EcoRI ribotypes; PvuII ribotype data yielded multiple subtypes within 7 EcoRI ribotypes for a total of 21 subtypes based on both EcoRI and PvuII ribotyping. A total of three EcoRI ribotypes (DUP-1023C, DUP-1045B, and DUP-1053E) were isolated at multiple sampling times from both plants. In addition, one subtype (DUP-1053B) was isolated at multiple sampling times in only plant A, the salmon smoking operation. These data not only support that L. monocytogenes can persist throughout the salmon production system, but also showed that L. monocytogenes may be transmitted between slaughter and smoking operations or may be unique to smoking operations. While the majority of subtypes isolated have been rarely or never linked to human listeriosis cases, some subtypes have previously caused human listeriosis outbreaks and cases. Molecular subtyping thus is critical to identify L. monocytogenes transmission and niches in order to allow design and implementation of control strategies at the appropriate stage of production and in order to reduce the prevalence of L. monocytogenes linked to human disease.

Genetic variation of ticks (Ixodes ricinus L.) in the Lithuanian and Norwegian populations

RAPD markers were used to measure the genetic diversity of 119 individuals of Ixodes ricinus collected from Lithuania and Norway. The samples were analysed within and also between the populations. We analysed 74 loci in each of 6 populations. Our results show high levels of diversity within the populations. The percentage of polymorphic loci of the six analysed populations: Birzai, Vilnius, Kretinga, Tjore, Kjosvik and Odderoya were 68.9%, 58.1%, 78.38%, 62.2%, 44.6% and 68.9%, respectively. The percentage of polymorphic loci in the Lithuanian populations was 93.2%, and in the Norwegian populations 81.08%. The genetic distance ranged from 0.019 to 0.079 within Norwegian populations and from 0.005 to 0.0967 within Lithuanian populations and between the countries from 0.022 to 0.146. The genetic variation of I. ricinus among Norwegian populations was lower than among Lithuanian populations. The highest part of genetic variation in I. ricinus ticks depends on variation within Kretinga (Lithuania) and Odderoya (Norway) populations situated in coastal areas where many migratory and sea birds are aggregated.

Longitudinal studies on Listeria monocytogenes and other Listeria species in two salmon processing plants

Two plants processing salmon fillets and cold smoked salmon were investigated for occurrence of Listeria in products and the environment. Analyses were conducted for a period of 31 weeks. At plant A, 252 samples were examined of which 97 were from unprocessed fish and 155 from cold-smoked fish. At plant B, 189 samples of unprocessed fish were investigated. The first examination of unprocessed fish at plant A showed a presence of L. monocytogenes and L. spp. in 81% and 19% of the samples respectively. For cold-smoked fish the figures were 43% and 23%. At plant B, L. monocytogenes was isolated in 63% of the samples. During the test period, management at the processing plant initiated various hygiene precautions to improve the sanitary situation. The last batch of analyses of unprocessed fish at plant A showed a presence of L. monocytogenes and L. spp. in 42% and. 33% of the samples respectively. For cold-smoked fish, the figures were 6% and 11%. The isolation figures at plant B for L. monocytogenes and L. spp. were 50% and 17% respectively. The hygienic precautions did not have a significant effect on the presence of L. monocytogenes and L. spp. We suggest that Listeria bacteria are a part of the resident flora and are not eliminated by current cleaning and sanitation programmes. Cold-smoking, however, gave a significant reduction in the isolation of L. monocytogenes (P = 0.0082), while the isolation of L. spp. did not decrease after this process.

Haematological and serum biochemical reference values in free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus atlanticus)

Analyses of haematological and biochemical constituents were carried out on the Norwegian subspecies of free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus atlanticus). All animals were captured from January to March by using a mixture of xylazine and tiletamin-zolazepam. Immobilisation was performed with plastic projectile syringes fired from a dart gun. Fourteen haematological parameters were analysed. There were no differences in the values between hinds and stags and between adults and calves (P > 0.01). Of the 22 biochemical compounds investigated there was a significant difference (P < 0.01) between calves and adults for lactate dehydrogenase (LD), globulin, beta globulin, gamma globulin, and the minerals Na, K, Mg, Zn, Ca, and P. Differences (P < 0.01) between hinds and stags were found in cholesterol, gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), alpha-1 globulin, alpha-2 globulin and Cu. The blood values determined in this study can be used as reference values for this red deer subspecies immobilised with a mixture of xylazine-tiletamin-zolazepam for health control and diagnosis of diseases.Abstract in Norwegian /Sammendrag:Hematologiske og biokjemiske parametere er analysert på norsk frittlevende hjort (Cervus elaphus atlanticus). Hjorten ble immobilisert i tidsrommet januar til mars ved hjelp av et spesialgevær ladet med plast kanyler som inneholdt en blanding av xylazin og tiletamin-zolazepam. Det var ingen forskjeller i de14 undersøkte hematologiske verdiene mellom hinder, kalver og bukker (P>0,01). Av de 22 biokjemiske parametrene som ble undersøkt var det en signifikant forskjell mellom kalver og voksne (P<0,01) når det gjelder laktat dehydrogenase, globulin, beta globulin, gamma globulin og mineralene Na, K, Mg, Zn, Ca og P. Det var en signifikant forskjell mellom hinder og bukker (P<0.01) på parametrene kolesterol, gamma glutamyl transferase, alfa-1 globulin, alfa-2 globulin og Cu. Blodverdiene som ble målt i dette studiet kan bli brukt som referanseverdier for norsk hjort som er immobilisert med blandingen xylazin-tiletamin-zolazepam for helsekontroll og for diagnostisering av sykdommer.

Thermophilic campylobacters in surface water: a potential risk of campylobacteriosis

Campylobacteriosis caused by Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli and Campylobacter lari is one of the most frequently occurring acute gastroenteritis diseases in humans. An important risk factor is untreated drinking water. Thermotolerant campylobacters were isolated from Bø River water using 100-ml filtrate samples. Campylobacters were isolated from 32 of 60 samples (53.3%). Of the 75 strains isolated, 47 (62.7%) were detected using the enrichment procedure and 28 (37.2%) by direct plating of the filter. Campylobacter coli was the dominating species (44%) followed by Campylobacter jejuni (34.6%) and Campylobacter lari (14.7%). Five isolates (6.7%) could not be classified. Campylobacter were isolated without the occurrence of fecal coliforms indicating that fecal coliforms cannot be used as index bacteria to predict the occurrence of campylobacters. Case-control studies have indicated untreated drinking water and barbecuing as important risk factors, and waterborne campylobacteriosis has been caused by the three species isolated. The virulence factors of isolated environmental strains are not fully known. It was concluded that it is hazardous to use untreated surface water for drinking. Special efforts should be taken to avoid contamination of agricultural products from irrigation.

Drinking water and the prevalence of colorectal adenomas: an epidemiologic study in Telemark, Norway

This study was based on an endoscopic screening study for detection of polyps in the rectum and sigmoid colon in a randomized, normal population sample of 400 individuals aged 50-59 years. Family disposition for cancer and indicators of lifestyle (including dietary registration) were recorded. The 310 individuals received domestic drinking water from one out of four public water supplies. The participants were categorized according to the water supply connected to their house of residence. Drinking water was analysed monthly during 2 years for chloroform, total organic carbon, colour index, calcium, magnesium and chlorine. The overall prevalence of colorectal polyps was significantly higher in residents receiving chlorinated water with a high organic content when compared with recipients of water with a low organic content. There was no association between polyp prevalence and chloroform concentration in the drinking water. Multivariate analysis revealed that age, male sex, high BMI, smoking, few stools per week, high protein intake and low intake of fibre, iron and cruciferous vegetables were far more important for the presence of polyps than the total organic content in chlorinated drinking water.

Comparison of three commercial rapid agglutination test kits for identification of coagulase positive staphylococci from foods and animals

Three rapid agglutination assays for the identification of Staphylococcus aureus Monostaph (Bionor A/S, Skien, Norway), Staphyslide-Test (BioMerieux, Lyon, France) and Staph-Rapid-Test (Roche, Basel, Switzerland), were compared. A total of 104 Gram-positive, catalase positive cocci were tested: Nineteen Staphylococcus reference strains comprising 15 spp. (4 strains were coagulase positive), and 7 Micrococcus reference strains comprising 4 spp.; 22 food isolates comprising 13 S. aureus, 8 coagulase positive Staphylococcus spp., and 1 Micrococcus sp.; 56 animal isolates comprising 11 S. aureus, 9 S. hyicus subsp. hyicus, 2 S. intermedius, 15 coagulase positive and 19 coagulase negative Staphylococcus spp. Totally 54 strains were coagulase positive. Considering agglutination of a coagulase positive strain as a correct identification, Monostaph, Staph-Rapid-Test, and Staphyslide-Test correctly identified 52 (96.3%), 47 (87.0%) and 48 (89.0%) of the coagulase positive staphylococci, respectively. Monostaph, Staph-Rapid-Test and Staphyslide-Test showed 1 (2.0%), 4 (8.0%) and 4 (8.0%) false positive reactions respectively. Monostaph, Staph-Rapid-Test and Staphyslide-Test gave 0 (0.0%), 6 (5.8%) and 7 (6.7%) non-interpretable reactions, respectively. Monostaph may be a good alternative to the tube-coagulase test for rapid and reliable identification of coagulase positive staphylococci from both food and veterinary sources. However, false negative reactions may occur with coagulase positive strains of S. hyicus subsp. hyicus and S. intermedius.

Comparison of three commercial rapid agglutination test kits for identification of coagulase positive staphylococci from foods and animals

Three rapid agglutination assays for the identification of Staphylococcus aureus Monostaph (Bionor A/S, Skien, Norway), Staphyslide-Test (BioMerieux, Lyon, France) and Staph-Rapid-Test (Roche, Basel, Switzerland), were compared. A total of 104 Gram-positive, catalase positive cocci were tested: Nineteen Staphylococcus reference strains comprising 15 spp. (4 strains were coagulase positive), and 7 Micrococcus reference strains comprising 4 spp.; 22 food isolates comprising 13 S. aureus, 8 coagulase positive Staphylococcus spp., and 1 Micrococcus sp.; 56 animal isolates comprising 11 S. aureus, 9 S. hyicus subsp. hyicus, 2 S. intermedius, 15 coagulase positive and 19 coagulase negative Staphylococcus spp. Totally 54 strains were coagulase positive. Considering agglutination of a coagulase positive strain as a correct identification, Monostaph, Staph-Rapid-Test, and Staphyslide-Test correctly identified 52 (96.3%), 47 (87.0%) and 48 (89.0%) of the coagulase positive staphylococci, respectively. Monostaph, Staph-Rapid-Test and Staphyslide-Test showed 1 (2.0%), 4 (8.0%) and 4 (8.0%) false positive reactions respectively. Monostaph, Staph-Rapid-Test and Staphyslide-Test gave 0 (0.0%), 6 (5.8%) and 7 (6.7%) non-interpretable reactions, respectively. Monostaph may be a good alternative to the tube-coagulase test for rapid and reliable identification of coagulase positive staphylococci from both food and veterinary sources. However, false negative reactions may occur with coagulase positive strains of S. hyicus subsp. hyicus and S. intermedius.

Serotyping of Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli, and Campylobacter laridis from domestic and wild animals

By using 50 unabsorbed antisera, we were able to serotype 272 (65.7%) of 414 thermotolerant campylobacters from wild and domestic animals, on the basis of heat-stable antigens identified by means of passive hemagglutination. Forty-two serotypes were recognized. The pattern of serotypes detected in the various animal species was compared to human clinical isolates by using the Czekanowski index (proportional similarity index). The highest degree of similarity to the clinical isolates was observed for the poultry isolates, followed by strains from wild birds, flies, and pigs (in order of decreasing similarity). The serotypes recovered most frequently from poultry (LAU 1 and LAU 2) were also most prevalent in Norwegian patients. In contrast, serotype LAU 35/44, the predominant porcine serotype, was never recovered from human clinical specimens. Flies captured in chicken farms and in piggeries harbored serotypes which were also commonly seen in chickens and pigs, respectively. Nine of the strains included in this study could not be ascribed to any defined species. All of these were resistant to nalidixic acid and did not produce H2S.

Serotyping and biotyping of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli from sporadic cases and outbreaks in Norway

Of 172 thermophilic campylobacters isolated from human cases of gastroenteritis in Norway, 149 (86.6%) were classified as Campylobacter jejuni, whereas 23 isolates (13.4%) belonged to Campylobacter coli. C. jejuni biotype 1 comprised 66.3% and C. jejuni biotype 2 comprised 20.3% of the total number. Using 50 unabsorbed antisera, we were able to serotype 109 (80.1%) of 136 campylobacters on the basis of heat-stable antigens identified by means of passive hemagglutination. The typable strains fell into 36 different serotypes. A large proportion of the strains were isolated from travellers returning from abroad, a state of affairs which may have influenced the serotype and biotype distribution. Two family outbreaks were found to be caused by a bio-serotype common to all diseased members of the particular families. A third family outbreak and an outbreak among employees at a poultry processing plant each involved two distinct strains.

Isolation and characterization of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli from domestic and wild mammals in Norway

A total of 1,262 domestic and wild mammals from Norway were surveyed for fecal carriage of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. Of the five species of domestic mammals examined, the highest isolation rate was recorded among swine (100.0%), followed by sheep (8.1%) and cows (0.8%). No strains were recovered from horses or goats. Among wild mammals, C. jejuni was isolated from 1 of 23 hares, and no isolated were obtained from three species of cervids and three species of rodents. Of the 133 Campylobacter strains isolated, 114 were classified as C. coli, 18 were C. jejuni biotype 1, and 1 belonged to C. jejuni biotype 2. All 114 strains from swine were C. coli. Milk samples from 113 domestic animals with clinically diagnosed mastitis (106 cows, 5 sheep, 1 horse, and 1 pig) were negative for campylobacters.

Avian wildlife reservoir of Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni, Yersinia spp., and Salmonella spp. in Norway

Cloacal swabs from 540 wild-living birds were cultured for Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni, Yersinia spp., and Salmonella spp. The carrier rates detected were as follows: C. fetus subsp. jejuni, 28.4%; Yersinia spp., 1.2%; and Salmonella spp., 0.8%. All birds were apparently healthy when captured. C. fetus subsp. jejuni was isolated from 11 of the 40 bird species examined. Among birds inhabiting the city of Oslo, the highest isolation rate was found in crows (Corvus corone cornix) (89.8%), followed by gulls (Larus spp.) (50.0%) and domestic pigeons (Columba livia domesticus) (4.2%). The gulls and crows scavenge on refuse dumps. High carrier rates were also detected among the following birds from nonurban, coastal areas: puffin (Fratercula arctica) (51.3%), common tern (Sterna hirundo) (5.6%), common gull (Larus canus) (18.9%), black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus) (13.2%), and herring gull (Larus argentatus) (4.2%). The list of species harboring C. fetus subsp. jejuni also includes the Ural owl (Strix uralensis), goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), and reed bunting (Emberiza schoeniclus). The following five Yersinia strains were isolated: Y. kristensenii (two strains), Y. intermedia (two strains), and "Yersinia X2" (one strain). Four strains belonging to the genus Salmonella were isolated from three different species of gulls. These isolates were identified as S. typhimurium, S. indiana, and S. djugu. The results indicate that campylobacters are a normal component of the intestinal flora in several bird species, whereas Salmonella and Yersinia carriers are more sporadic.

House flies (Musca domestica) as possible vectors of Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni

A total of 161 strains of Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni were isolated from house flies (Musca domestica). The carrier rates detected were 50.7% in flies captured on a chicken farm and 43.2% in flies from a piggery. The relative prevalences of Campylobacter coli, C. jejuni, and nalidixic acid-resistant thermophilic campylobacters were 90.1, 6.2, and 3.7%, respectively. The results indicate that flies may play a linking role in the epidemiology of Campylobacter infection in humans by transmitting campylobacters from animals to human food.

Isolation of Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni from faeces of Norwegian poultry

Pooled faeces samples from 106 poultry flocks in Norway were examined. Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni was isolated from 10 of 100 chicken flocks and from 4 of 6 turkey flocks. Eight of the 14 isolates were classified as biotype C. jejuni, which is frequently associated with human campylobacteriosis. Five strains belonged to the biotype C. coli. One strain was resistant to nalidixic acid but differed from the biotype NARTC in its ability to hydrolyse hippurate. The results indicate that C. fetus subsp. jejuni is widespread among Norwegian poultry.

Some characteristics of Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni isolated from pigs, birds and man

One hundred and two strains of Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni isolated from pigs, various avian species and man were subjected to biochemical characterization including hydrolysis of hippurate, tolerance of 3.5 % saline, H₂S production in TSI medium, growth on TTC agar and antibiotic sensitivity. On this basis the porcine strains could be classified into 4 groups, while the avian and human strains could each be divided into 2 groups. The avian and human strains had the same biochemical characteristics as 2 of the porcine groups.

[The occurrence of campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni and Salmonella bacteria in some wild birds (author's transl)]

An investigation was carried out into the occurrence of Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni and Salmonella species in some wild birds. A total of 129 birds was examined, consisting of 71 pigeons, 54 seagulls, three crows and one raven. Campylobacter bacteria were isolated from 32 birds (24.8%), of which three were pigeons, 27 seagulls and two were crows. Of the 27 Campylobacter strains isolated from seagulls, four had the biochemical characteristics of the NARTC biotype described by Skirrow and Benjamin, seven were grouped as Campylobacter coli biotype and 16 as the biotype of Campylobacter jejuni. All the strains isolated from crows and pigeons had the biochemical characteristics of Campylobacter jejuni biotypes. Salmonella bacteria were isolated from the intestinal contents of two of the 54 seagulls (3.7%), and were identified serologically as Salmonella indiana and Salmonella typhimurium. One seagull was found to be a carrier of both Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni and Salmonella typhimurium. A correlation could not be demonstrated between the occurrence of Salmonella bacteria and Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni.

[Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni as a surface contaminant of fresh and chilled pig carcasses (author's transl)]

An investigation was carried out into the occurrence of Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni on the surfaces of fresh and chilled pig carcasses. Swabs were taken of the water in the scald-tank, from cut surfaces, and from cut surfaces of carcasses that had been stored at 5 degrees C for 4 days. A total of 310 swabs was investigated, of which 10 were from the scald-tank, 100 from livers, 100 from cut surfaces, and 100 from cut surfaces of carcasses stored at refrigeration temperature. A specific enrichment process was employed for isolation of the bacteria. Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni was isolated from 43% of the liver swabs, from 56% of those from the cut surfaces, and from 32% of swabs from the cut surfaces of carcasses stored at refrigeration temperature. Campylobacter bacteria were not, however, isolated from the scald-tank. The high level of contamination found in this investigation is considered to create a possible source of Campylobacter infection for animal and Man.