Bacteriophage amplification assay for detection of Listeria spp. using virucidal laser treatment

A protocol for the bacteriophage amplification technique was developed for quantitative detection of viable Listeria monocytogenes cells using the A511 listeriophage with plaque formation as the end-point assay. Laser and toluidine blue O (TBO) were employed as selective virucidal treatment for destruction of exogenous bacteriophage. Laser and TBO can bring a total reduction in titer phage (ca. 10(8) pfu/mL) without affecting the viability of L. monocytogenes cells. Artificially inoculated skimmed milk revealed mean populations of the bacteria as low as between 13 cfu/mL (1.11 log cfu/mL), after a 10-h assay duration. Virucidal laser treatment demonstrated better protection of Listeria cells than the other agents previously tested. The protocol was faster and easier to perform than standard procedures. This protocol constitutes an alternative for rapid, sensitive and quantitative detection of L. monocytogenes.

Cross-linked alginate–gelatine beads: a new matrix for controlled release of pindolol

This work is focused on the development of a new particulate drug delivery system using a sodium alginate matrix containing pindolol as a model drug molecule for intestinal drug prolonged release. Calcium alginate beads are known to be unable to control the release of most insoluble drugs. Pindolol-loaded alginate-gelatine beads have been developed using a solvent-free technique that involves a cross-linking reaction. Modifications in matrix structure and physicochemical behaviour caused by the cross-linking reaction were assessed during particle formation and drug release. Several parameters, such as matrix gelling rate, encapsulation efficiency, drug release profile and matrix erosion rate, were investigated. Physicochemical characterisation indicates the formation of a new alginate-gelatine matrix and shows that pindolol does not interfere with the matrix formation process. Matrix swelling of calcium alginate beads induced by phosphate buffer ends up in erosion and destruction. However, for cross-linked beads swelling does not lead to complete erosion, which may be the main cause of pindolol retention within the matrix. The modifications introduced in the initial calcium alginate formulation by means of an appropriate method such as the use of a cross-linking agent successfully changed the matrix performance, allowing the controlled release of pindolol.

Occurrence of Listeria spp. in critical control points and the environment of Minas Frescal cheese processing

Critical control points (CCPs) associated with Minas Frescal cheese (a Brazilian soft white cheese, eaten fresh) processing in two dairy factories were determined using flow diagrams and microbiological tests for detection of Listeria monocytogenes and other species of Listeria. A total of 218 samples were collected along the production line and environment. The CCPs identified were reception of raw milk, pasteurization, coagulation and storage. Thirteen samples were positive for Listeria; 9 samples were Listeria innocua, 2 were Listeria grayi and 2 were L. monocytogenes. In factory A, Listeria was found in 50% of raw milk samples, 33.3% of curd samples, 16.7% of pasteurized milk samples, 16.7% of cheese samples and 25% of rubber pipes used to transport the whey. The microorganism was not obtained from environmental samples in this plant. In factory B, Listeria was found in one sample of raw milk (16.7%) and in three samples of environment (17.6%) and L. monocytogenes was obtained from raw milk (16.7%) and the floor of the cheese refrigeration room (14.3%). Two serotypes, 4b and 1/2a, were observed among the strains of L. monocytogenes isolated, both which are frequently involved in outbreaks of food-borne listeriosis and sporadic cases of the disease all over the world.

Domain formation in a fluid mixed lipid bilayer modulated through binding of the C2 protein motif

The role and mechanism of formation of lipid domains in a functional membrane have generally received limited attention. Our approach, based on the hypothesis that thermodynamic coupling between lipid-lipid and protein-lipid interactions can lead to domain formation, uses a combination of an experimental lipid bilayer model system and Monte Carlo computer simulations of a simple model of that system. The experimental system is a fluid bilayer composed of a binary mixture of phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylserine (PS), containing 4% of a pyrene-labeled anionic phospholipid. Addition of the C2 protein motif (a structural domain found in proteins implicated in eukaryotic signal transduction and cellular trafficking processes) to the bilayer first increases and then decreases the excimer/monomer ratio of the pyrene fluorescence. We interpret this to mean that protein binding induces anionic lipid domain formation until the anionic lipid becomes saturated with protein. Monte Carlo simulations were performed on a lattice representing the lipid bilayer to which proteins were added. The important parameters are an unlike lipid-lipid interaction term and an experimentally derived preferential protein-lipid interaction term. The simulations support the experimental conclusion and indicate the existence of a maximum in PS domain size as a function of protein concentration. Thus, lipid-protein coupling is a possible mechanism for both lipid and protein clustering on a fluid bilayer. Such domains could be precursors of larger lipid-protein clusters ('rafts'), which could be important in various biological processes such as signal transduction at the level of the cell membrane.

Association of a fluorescent amphiphile with lipid bilayer vesicles in regions of solid-liquid-disordered phase coexistence

The effects of solid-fluid phase separations on the kinetics of association of a single-chain fluorescent amphiphile were investigated in two different systems: pure DMPC (dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine) and a 1:1 mixture of DMPC and DSPC (distearoylphosphatidylcholine). In pure DMPC vesicles, solid (s) and fluid (l(d)) phases coexist at the phase transition temperature, T(m), whereas a 1:1 mixture of DMPC and DSPC shows a stable s-l(d) phase separation over a large temperature interval. We found that in single-component bilayers, within the main phase transition, the experimental kinetics of association are clearly not single-exponential, the deviation from that function becoming maximal at the T(m). This observation can be accounted for by a rate of desorption that is slower than desorption from either fluid or solid phases, leaving the rates of insertion unchanged, but a treatment in terms of stable fluid and solid domains may not be adequate for the analysis of the association of an amphiphile with pure DMPC vesicles at the T(m). In DMPC/DSPC mixtures with solid-fluid phase coexistence, association occurs overall faster than expected based on phase composition. The observed kinetics can be described by an increase in the rate of insertion, leaving the desorption rates unchanged. The fast kinetics of insertion of the amphiphile into two-phase bilayers in two-component vesicles is attributed to a more rapid insertion into defect-rich regions, which are most likely phase boundaries between solid and fluid domains. A two-component mixture of lipids that shows a stable phase separation between l(d)-s phases over a large temperature interval thus behaves very differently from a single-component bilayer at the T(m), with respect to insertion of amphiphiles.

Kinetics of amphiphile association with two-phase lipid bilayer vesicles

We examined the consequences of membrane heterogeneity for the association of a simple amphiphilic molecule with phospholipid vesicles with solid-liquid and liquid-liquid phase coexistence. To address this problem we studied the association of a single-chain, fluorescent amphiphile with dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) vesicles containing varying amounts of cholesterol. DMPC bilayers containing 15 mol% cholesterol show a region of solid-liquid-ordered (s-l(o)) coexistence below the T(m) of pure DMPC (23.9 degrees C) and a region of liquid-disordered-liquid-ordered coexistence (l(d)-l(o)) above the T(m). We first examined equilibrium binding and kinetics of amphiphile insertion into single-phase vesicles (s, l(d), and l(o) phase). The data obtained were then used to predict the behavior of the equivalent process in a two-phase system, taking into account the fractions of phases present. Next, the predicted kinetics were compared to experimental kinetics obtained from a two-phase system. We found that association of the amphiphile with lipid vesicles is not influenced by the existence of l(d)-l(o) phase boundaries but occurs much more slowly in the s-l(o) phase coexistence region than expected on the basis of phase composition.

Lipid transfer between vesicles: effect of high vesicle concentration

The problem of the desorption of a lipid molecule from a lipid vesicle (donor) and its incorporation into another vesicle (acceptor) at high acceptor concentrations, which has been investigated experimentally (Jones, J. D. and Thompson, T. E., 1990. Biochemistry, 29:1593-1600), is analyzed here from a theoretical point of view, formulated in terms of the diffusion equation with appropriate boundary conditions. The goal is to determine whether or not the observed acceleration of the off-rate from a donor is caused by interaction with an acceptor vesicle at short range, or is simply the result of statistical effects due the proximity of the acceptor and its influence on the probability of the test lipid returning to the donor. We establish a correspondence between the theoretical parameters and the experimental, thermodynamic and dynamic variables entering the problem. The solution shows that, because of the extremely high Gibbs activation energy for desorption of a phospholipid, the process would always be first-order, even at very high vesicle concentrations. This means that acceleration of the off-rate must be due to donor-acceptor interactions at short distances, as proposed in the experimental work.

Membrane domain formation by calcium-dependent, lipid-binding proteins: insights from the C2 motif

We propose a novel role in cellular function for some membrane-binding proteins and, specifically, the C2 motif. The C2 motif binds phospholipid in a manner that is modulated by Ca2+ and is thought to confer membrane-binding ability on a wide variety of proteins, primarily proteins involved in signal transduction and membrane trafficking events. We hypothesize that in the absence of Ca2+ the C2 motif couples the free energy of binding to a bilayer membrane comprised of zwitterionic and negatively charged lipids to the formation of a domain enriched in the negative lipids. This in turn leads to the dynamic clustering of bound homologous or heterologous proteins incorporating the C2 motif, or other acidic lipid-binding motifs. In the presence of Ca2+, the protein clusters may be further stabilized. In support of this hypothesis we present evidence for membrane domain formation by the first C2 domain of synaptotagmin in the absence of Ca2+. Fluid state phospholipid mixtures incorporating a pyrene-labeled phospholipid probe exhibited a change in pyrene excimer/monomer fluorescence ratio consistent with domain formation upon binding the C2 domain. In addition, we present the results of simulations of the interaction of the C2 domain with the membrane that indicate that protein clusters and lipid domains form in concert.

The H(+)-ATPase in the plasma membrane of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is activated during growth latency in octanoic acid-supplemented medium accompanying the decrease in intracellular pH and cell viability

Saccharomyces cerevisiae plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase activity was stimulated during octanoic acid-induced latency, reaching maximal values at the early stages of exponential growth. The time-dependent pattern of ATPase activation correlated with the decrease of cytosolic pH (pHi). The cell population used as inoculum exhibited a significant heterogeneity of pHi, and the fall of pHi correlated with the loss of cell viability as determined by plate counts. When exponential growth started, only a fraction of the initial population was still viable, consistent with the role of the physiology and number of viable cells in the inoculum in the duration of latency under acid stress.

Simulation of the gel-fluid transition in a membrane composed of lipids with two connected acyl chains: application of a dimer-move step

Phospholipids have been treated as dimers on a hexagonal lattice, and a move has been introduced that allows the dimers to move and change their orientation on the lattice. Simulations have been performed in which phospholipid chains have been treated as being either independent or infinitely coupled thermodynamically with regard to their conformational state. Both types of simulation have reproduced well experimental heat-capacity curves of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine small unilamellar vesicles. Apart from a different gel-fluid interaction parameter and a different number of unlike nearest-neighbor contacts, most of the averages and thermodynamic quantities were essentially the same in the two types of simulation. These results indicate that the transition is not first order and validate those of previous Monte Carlo simulations that have neglected the dimeric nature of phospholipids in the sense that they show that for the thermotropic transition the approximation of phospholipids as monomers is valid.

1H, 15N and 13C resonance assignments and secondary structure of group II phospholipase A2 from Agkistrodon piscivorus piscivorus: presence of an amino-terminal helix in solution

1H, 15N and 13C resonance assignments are presented for the group II phospholipase A2 (PLA2) from Agkistrodon piscivorus piscivorus. The secondary structure of the enzyme has been inferred from an analysis of coupling constants, interproton distances, chemical shifts, and kinetics of amide exchange. Overall, the secondary structure of this PLA2 is similar to the crystal structure of the homologous group II human nonpancreatic secretory phospholipase [Scott, D.L., White, S.P., Browning, J.L., Rosa, J.J., Gelb, M.H. and Sigler, P.B. (1991) Science, 254, 1007-1010]. In the group I enzyme from porcine pancreas, the amino-terminal helix becomes fully ordered in the ternary complex of enzyme, lipid micelles and inhibitor. The formation of this helix is thought to be important for the increase in activity of phospholipases on aggregated substrates [Van den Berg, B., Tessari, M., Boelens, R., Dijkman, R., De Haas, G. H., Kaptein, R. and Verheij, H.M. (1995) Nature Strct. Biol., 2, 402-406]. However, the group II enzyme from Agkistrodon piscivorus piscivorus possesses a defined and well-positioned amino-terminal helix in the absence of substrate. Therefore, there is a clear difference between the conformation group I and group II enzymes in solution. These conformational differences suggest that formation of the amino-terminal helix is a necessary, but not sufficient, step in interfacial activation of phospholipases.

Percolation and diffusion in three-component lipid bilayers: effect of cholesterol on an equimolar mixture of two phosphatidylcholines

The lateral diffusion of a phospholipid probe is studied in bilayers of binary mixtures of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC)/cholesterol and distearoylphosphatidylcholine (DSPC)/cholesterol and in the ternary system DMPC/DSPC/cholesterol using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. An approximate phase diagram for the ternary system, as a function of temperature and cholesterol concentration, was obtained using differential scanning calorimetry and the phase diagrams of the binary systems. This phase diagram is similar to those of the phospholipid/cholesterol binary mixtures. In bilayers where solid and liquid phases coexist, the diffusion results are interpreted in terms of phase percolation. The size of the liquid-phase domains is estimated using percolation theory. In the ternary system, addition of cholesterol up to approximately 20 mol% shifts the percolation threshold to lower area fractions of liquid, but the size of the liquid-phase domains does not change. Above approximately 20 mol% cholesterol, the liquid phase is always connected. The size of solid-phase domains clusters is estimated using a model recently developed (Almeida, P.F.F., W.L.C. Vaz, and T.E. Thompson. 1992. Biochemistry. 31:7198-7210). For cholesterol concentrations up to 20 mol%, the size of solid-phase domain units does not change. Beyond 20 mol%, cholesterol causes the size of the solid units to decrease.

Lateral diffusion and percolation in two-phase, two-component lipid bilayers. Topology of the solid-phase domains in-plane and across the lipid bilayer

Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) has recently been used to examine the percolation properties of coexisting phases in two-component, two-phase phosphatidylcholine bilayers [Vaz, W. L. C., Melo, E. C. C., & Thompson, T. E. (1989) Biophys. J. 56, 869-876]. We now report the use of FRAP to study two additional problems in similar systems. The first is the effect of solid-phase obstacles on the lateral diffusion in the fluid phase. The second is the question of whether or not, in a single bilayer, solid-phase domains in one monolayer are exactly superimposed on solid domains in the apposing monolayer. To address the first problem, the lateral diffusion of N-(7-nitrobenzoxa-2,3-diazol-4-yl)-1-palmitoyl-2-oleoylphosp hatidylethanolamine (NBD-POPE), a probe soluble only in the fluid phase when solid and fluid phases coexist, has been studied in the mixture N-lignoceroyldihydrogalactosylceramide (LigGalCer)/dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC). Percolation of the fluid phase occurs at a high mass fraction of solid phase. This indicates that the solid domains have a centrosymmetric shape, a characteristic which makes this a good experimental system to test theoretical simulations of diffusion in an archipelago. It is shown that agreement between theory and experiment is poor, a result that had already been observed when the obstacles were integral membrane proteins. We develop an effective-medium model for diffusion in two-phase systems which explains both our results and those obtained with integral proteins. The distinctive feature of the model is the consideration of an annular region around the obstacles where the lipids are more ordered than in the bulk fluid phase. The diffusion coefficient is then calculated by extending the free area model to two-phase systems, taking these annuli into account. The second question, the organization of the solid-phase domains across the lipid bilayer, is examined in the systems LigGalCer/DPPC and dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC)/distearoylphosphatidylcholine (DSPC) by comparing the diffusion of a fluid-phase-soluble, gel-phase-insoluble lipid derivative which spans the two monolayers of a bilayer (NBD-membrane-spanning-phosphatidylethanolamine, NBD-msPE) with that of a probe which is restricted to a single monolayer. In LigGalCer/DPPC, 20:80, the distribution of solid domains in one of the monolayers is independent of the distribution in the apposing monolayer. In contrast, in DMPC/DSPC, 50:50, the solid domains in one monolayer are exactly superimposed upon the solid domains existing in the apposing monolayer.

Lateral diffusion in the liquid phases of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine/cholesterol lipid bilayers: a free volume analysis

The technique of fluorescence recovery after photobleaching is used to perform an extensive study of the lateral diffusion of a phospholipid probe in the binary mixture dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine/cholesterol, above the melting temperature of the phospholipid. In the regions of the phase diagram where a single liquid phase exists, diffusion can be quantitatively described by free volume theory, using a modified Macedo-Litovitz hybrid equation. In the liquid-liquid immiscibility region, the temperature dependence of the diffusion coefficient is in excellent agreement with current theories of generalized diffusivities in composite two-phase media. A consistent interpretation of the diffusion data can be provided based essentially on the idea that the primary effect of cholesterol addition to the bilayer is to occupy free volume. On this basis, a general interpretation of the phase behavior of this mixture is also proposed.

Microscopic versus macroscopic diffusion in one-component fluid phase lipid bilayer membranes

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Spontaneous interbilayer transfer of hexosylceramides between phospholipid bilayers

The kinetics of spontaneous transfer of various glucosyl- and galactosylceramides between 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoylphosphatidylcholine vesicles have been examined at 45 degrees C. Bovine brain galactosylceramides, kerasin and phrenosin, were found to transfer with biexponential kinetics. The kerasin fast pool is approximately 17% with a half-time of 29 h and the slow pool approximately 83% with a half-time of 2700 h. In contrast, semisynthetic N-palmitoylgalactosylceramide at the same temperature transfers with single-exponential kinetics with a half-time of 32 h. The half-time for N-lignoceroylgalactosylceramide under the same conditions proved to be greater than 3500 h. No concentration dependence for these half-times was found in the concentration range studied (0-10 mol%). Similar results were obtained for semisynthetic glucosylceramides. The biexponential kinetics observed for the two bovine brain ceramides, both of which are mixtures of short and long acyl chain molecules, are most probably a reflection of the strong dependence of transfer rate on acyl chain length. The very slow transfer rates of the long acyl chain hexosylceramides ensure that these molecules are lost very slowly, if at all, by spontaneous transfer from the external surface of plasma membranes; a result that is consistent with the putative biological role of glycosphingolipids.