Markers of circulating tumour cells in the peripheral blood of patients with melanoma correlate with disease recurrence and progression

BACKGROUND

Multimarker quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) represents an effective method for detecting circulating tumour cells in the peripheral blood of patients with melanoma.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether the phenotype of circulating melanoma cells represents a useful indicator of disease stage, recurrence and treatment efficacy.

METHODS

  Peripheral blood was collected from 230 patients with melanoma and 152 healthy controls over a period of 3years and 9months. Clinical data and blood samples were collected from patients with primary melanoma (early stages, 0-II, n=154) and metastatic melanoma (late stages, III-IV, n=76). Each specimen was examined by qRT-PCR analysis for the expression of five markers: MLANA, ABCB5, TGFβ2, PAX3d and MCAM.

RESULTS

 In total, 212 of the patients with melanoma (92%) expressed markers in their peripheral blood. Two markers, MLANA and ABCB5, had the greatest prognostic value, and were identified as statistically significant among patients who experienced disease recurrence within our study period, being expressed in 45% (MLANA) and 49% (ABCB5) of patients with recurrence (P=0·001 and P=0·031, respectively). For patients administered nonsurgical treatments, MCAM expression correlated with poor treatment outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Circulating tumour cells were detectable at all stages of disease and long after surgical treatment, even when patients were considered disease free. Specifically, expression of ABCB5 and MLANA had significant prognostic value in inferring disease recurrence, while MCAM expression was associated with poor patient outcome after treatment, confirming multimarker qRT-PCR as a potential technique for monitoring disease status.

Merkel cell carcinoma in Western Australia: a population-based study of incidence and survival

BACKGROUND

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an uncommon but aggressive cutaneous skin cancer. Even with the appropriate treatment, MCC is prone to recurrence, and metastases are common. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation has been suggested as contributing towards the development of MCC. MCC has not been extensively investigated in Australia, even though Australia has the highest incidence of sun-related cancers in the world.

OBJECTIVES

To describe the demographics and determine trends of incidence and survival of MCC cases in Western Australia (WA).

METHODS

All reported invasive cases of MCC incident between 1 January 1993 and 31 December 2007 were extracted from the WA Cancer Registry. Age-adjusted incidence rates for MCC were calculated using direct standardization to the U.S. standard 2000 population. Cause-specific survival was investigated using Kaplan-Meier and Cox proportional hazards analysis. results: Two hundred and fifteen cases were confirmed by pathological review as being definite cases of MCC. Patients were mainly males (65%) and elderly (median age 77 years). Standardized age-adjusted incidence rates were higher in men (1·0/100,000) than in women (0·63/100,000) and higher in older ages (15·5/100,000 in the 85+year age group) than younger ages (0·1/100,000 in the 30-34 year age group). Five-year cause-specific survival was 64%.

CONCLUSIONS

Incidence of MCC in WA is the highest reported in the literature. In addition, MCC has worse survival than melanoma. The high rates and demographic and anatomical distribution are consistent with sun exposure playing a causal role.

Local recurrence of melanoma

Local recurrence (LR) of cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) is a controversial issue, especially in regard to recommendations for margins of excision of primary CMM. Factual evidence in support of the belief that wider margins of excision decrease the risk of local recurrence is meagre, but recommendations for adjusting margins of excision according to tumour thickness are still presented. The histological features of LR indicate that two mechanisms are involved: (1) persistent growth of incompletely excised primary melanoma, and (2) local metastasis. The second group comprises the most common form of LR and is associated with a poor prognosis, indicating that it is a manifestation of systemic disease. The morphological features and the prognostic implications of LR indicate that many are due to haematogenous rather than lymphatic metastasis alone and, therefore, are not preventable by wider excisions beyond complete excision of the primary tumour itself. The concept that most LRs are metastases is consistent with the failure of wide margins of excision to prevent LR. The higher risk of LR associated with greater tumour thickness is associated with the increased risk of metastasis from the thicker tumours, not with the extent of excision. The resolution of the controversy regarding the primary surgical treatment of CMM depends on the recognition by pathologists and clinicians alike that the two types of LR have diagnostic microscopic features and that they have entirely different implications for prognosis.

Clinical and histologic features of level 2 cutaneous malignant melanoma associated with metastasis

BACKGROUND

Metastatic melanoma developing in patients with a level 2 primary cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) is rare but has been reported in studies with follow-up periods ranging up to 15 years. The objective of this study was to investigate level 2 CMM associated with metastasis in a population-based retrospective study.

METHODS

In this retrospective population-based study, all level 2 CMMs associated with metastases were identified in Western Australia during 1982-1989 and were followed up to the end of 1996.

RESULTS

Pathology reports of 2834 patients were examined. Of these, 1716 had a CMM of maximum tumor thickness 1 mm or less recorded on the pathology report. Of these, 67 had a metastatic melanoma reported on follow-up. Histologic review of these 67 cases under blind conditions identified 5 cases with a level 2 primary CMM followed by metastasis without another primary CMM. All these level 2 CMM showed established regression. Eight other patients were identified with a level 2 CMM, metastatic melanoma, and another primary CMM of at least level 3 invasion. These subsequent primaries occurred before the metastasis had been reported.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that metastasis from level 2 CMM without regression is very rare, if it occurs at all.

The repopulation of murine Langerhans cells after depletion by mild heat injury

We have developed a model of focal Langerhans cell depletion by mild heat injury and used it to investigate the mechanisms of Langerhans cell repopulation in the injured epidermis. The possibility whether repopulation occurred by recruitment of precursor cells from the circulation or dermis or, alternatively, by migration from the surrounding normal epidermis into the injured area was considered. Repopulation was studied by evaluating the pattern of Langerhans cell reappearance and calculating the rate of change in the density. Heat injury followed by whole-body irradiation with shielding of the injured skin was used to assess repopulation in the absence of bone marrow precursors. Using tritiated thymidine autoradiography, we also investigated whether the newly arrived Langerhans cells (be they from circulating precursors or surrounding normal epidermis) actually divide. The results showed that heat injury completely eliminated the Langerhans cells within the area delineated by the injury. Two hours after injury, the Langerhans cells were fragmented and 2 days later, they could not be detected. Regeneration of the epidermis occurred 2 days after injury and Langerhans cells reappeared scattered somewhat sparsely in the centre of the lesion on day 3. These cells were small and slender, bearing one or two short dendrites. As the dendrites increased in number and in length, the cells became similar morphologically and phenotypically to normal Langerhans cells. The rate of repopulation increased dramatically between days 5 and 7 and reached normal density on day 11. The pattern of Langerhans cell repopulation in the injured area and the lack of repopulation in the irradiated animals indicated that repopulation occurs by immigration of precursors from the circulation or dermis. There was no indication of migration of Langerhans cells from surrounding normal epidermis. Lastly, the newly arrived Langerhans cells failed to divide at the site of injury.

The steady-state turnover of murine epidermal Langerhans cells

We have investigated the steady-state turnover of murine epidermal Langerhans cells (LCs) using an X-irradiation model, 3H-thymidine autoradiography and cultured epidermal sheet explants, and by assessing the LC population in normal mice. The LC density after whole-body irradiation without any cutaneous shielding was not significantly different from that in skin shielded during whole-body irradiation (P > 0.05), indicating that the additional irradiation to the skin did not contribute to a decrease in LC density. In both instances, the LC number gradually decreased in a linear fashion. The results indicate that epidermal LCs continuously leave the epidermis and are continually replaced by circulating precursor cells from the bone marrow at a steady rate. Autoradiographic studies after a pulse injection of 3H-thymidine showed a labelling index of 0.013%, indicating that local mitosis is not an important contributor to the maintenance of the epidermal LC population. Although local X-irradiation resulted in temporary reduction of LC density, epidermal sheet explant culture obtained immediately after local X-irradiation showed no difference in LC density as compared with control unirradiated skin, indicating that the decrease in LC density was not due to significant LC destruction. From these data, we calculated that the half-life of murine LCs in the epidermis is approximately 9 days.

The morphological features of locally recurrent melanoma and cutaneous metastases of melanoma

Local recurrence of melanoma at the primary excision site usually implies that the primary excision was incomplete or "inadequate" and that the recurrence was attributable to retained primary melanoma cells or occult melanoma metastases in the adjacent tissue. Pathologists frequently report these tumors in the scar as recurrent or residual melanoma, apparently without considering the possibility that they may be local metastases and manifestations of systemic disease. In this study of 72 cases, we have shown that the morphological features of locally recurrent melanoma, excluding persistent incompletely excised primary melanoma, and cutaneous metastases of melanoma were identical. Because the prevention of local recurrence is the main reason for wide excision of melanoma beyond complete excision of the primary tumor itself, it is essential that pathologists should classify these neoplasms precisely as either persistent incompletely excised primary melanoma or metastatic melanoma.

Necrobiotic xanthogranuloma with paraproteinaemia

A 51-year-old woman developed multiple periorbital nodules. The subsequent demonstration of IgG lambda paraproteinaemia and the histological features of necrobiotic xanthogranulomatous inflammation confirmed the clinical diagnosis of necrobiotic xanthogranuloma with paraproteinaemia.

The pathogenesis of local recurrence of melanoma at the primary excision site

Local recurrence of melanoma at the primary excision site may imply that the primary excision was incomplete or 'inadequate', and that the recurrence was due to retained primary melanoma cells or occult microsatellites in the adjacent tissue. Pathologists frequently report these tumours in the scar as recurrent or residual melanoma, without further qualification, apparently without considering the possibility that they may be metastases and manifestations of systemic disease. In this study, 17 of 19 cases of locally recurrent melanoma at the primary excision site showed the histological features of metastasis rather than residual incompletely excised primary melanoma. Because the prevention of local recurrence is the main reason given in recommendations for wide excision of melanoma beyond complete excision of the primary tumour itself, it is essential that surgeons and pathologists should classify these neoplasms precisely as either persistent incompletely excised primary melanoma or metastatic melanoma.

Differential expression of epidermal growth factor receptor in melanocytic tumours demonstrated by immunohistochemistry and mRNA in situ hybridization

Differential expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has been reported in melanocytic lesions. To evaluate these differences in EGFR expression in melanocytic tumours, formalin-fixed, paraffin embedded sections from 33 benign melanocytic neoplasms and 77 cutaneous melanomas were analysed for EGFR protein and mRNA expression using immunohistochemistry and mRNA in situ hybridization. The majority of benign and malignant lesions expressed EGFR at both protein and mRNA levels. In 7% (7/100) samples, mRNA but not protein expression was observed. Overall, a higher proportion of cells expressed EGFR protein in malignant lesions compared with benign lesions (P = 0.06), and the intensity of mRNA expression was higher in the malignant tumours (P < 0.001). No significant differences in EGFR protein or mRNA expression with tumour progression within the malignant lesions were seen. These results indicate that EGFR mRNA and protein expression is common to benign and malignant melanocytic lesions, and that an overall increase in expression is associated with malignant transformation. However, differential EGFR expression between in situ melanomas and invasive or metastatic lesions was not observed.

Case-control study of sun exposure and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin

We conducted a case-control study of sun exposure and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the skin within a population-based, longitudinal study of skin cancer. Cases had histopathologically confirmed SCC. Subjects were interviewed about their lifetime sun exposure, including exposure to the site of the SCC (sites for controls were assigned randomly). Analysis was restricted to 132 cases and 1,031 controls born in Australia and with no ancestors from southern Europe. The total site-specific exposure was strongly related to risk of SCC; the odds ratio increased to a maximum of 3.3 at 65,000 hr of exposure before falling slightly. Site-specific exposure during childhood and adolescence was more strongly associated with SCC than exposure during adulthood. An intermittent pattern of weekly sun exposure was not associated with SCC and the odds ratios for hours of exposure on vacation were close to unity. The number of blistering sunburns to the site was positively associated with SCC. Use of sunscreens and hats showed inconsistent effects. Sun exposure, especially during childhood and adolescence, increases the risk of SCC. The pattern of exposure appears to be unimportant, despite the association with sunburn, which may simply be an indicator of the skin's sensitivity to sunlight.

p16 and p21WAF1 protein expression in melanocytic tumors by immunohistochemistry

To determine whether variation in the level of expression of p16 and p21WAF1 (p21) is associated with critical stages in cutaneous melanoma development or progression, the expression of these antigens was analyzed by immunohistochemistry in 110 benign and malignant melanocytic lesions. Differential expression of p16 protein has been reported in cutaneous melanocytic lesions, with loss of expression associated with the invasive stage of tumor development. Expression of p16 was seen in 31 of 35 benign melanocytic tumors (89%), 11 of 12 in situ melanomas (92%), 19 of 38 invasive primary melanomas (50%), and 16 of 25 metastatic melanomas (64%). There was a significant difference in the expression level of p16 observed in in situ versus invasive primary melanomas (p = 0.006), which is consistent with loss of normal p16 activity occurring in association with malignant tumor invasion. Overall, p21 levels were found to be low or undetectable in the majority of benign lesions, with greater p21 expression seen in malignant tumors. p21 was expressed in 28% of nevi, 60% of in situ melanomas, 61% of invasive melanomas, and 48% of metastatic melanomas. Among primary invasive tumors, the frequency of p21 expression increased with level of invasion (p < 0.01) and with increasing thickness (p < 0.01). However, differences in p21 expression were not clearly related to a particular stage of melanoma development.

Demographic characteristics, pigmentary and cutaneous risk factors for squamous cell carcinoma of the skin: a case-control study

We conducted a case-control study of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin (SCC) in a cohort of people followed from 1987 to 1994. Subjects were residents of Geraldton, Western Australia, who were between 40 and 64 years of age in 1987. On 2 occasions, in 1987 and 1992, dermatologists examined participants for skin cancers. Subjects were also asked on several occasions about skin cancers that they had had treated. Migrants to Australia had reduced risks of SCC. Furthermore, people who migrated to Australia early in life or, equivalently, lived in Australia for a long time had a higher risk than immigrants who arrived later in life or more recently. People who had southern European ancestry had a much lower risk of SCC than other subjects, most of whom were of British or northern European origin. Among Australian-born subjects of British or northern European ancestry, the skin's sensitivity to sunlight was strongly associated with SCC. The pigmentary traits of hair colour, eye colour and skin colour showed weaker associations. The degree of freckling on the arm was strongly predictive of risk. The risk of SCC increased strongly with increasing evidence of cutaneous solar damage and was most strongly associated with the number of solar keratoses. Our results show that sensitivity to sunlight and high levels of exposure to sunlight are important determinants of the risk of SCC.

Prognostic significance of MIB-1 proliferative activity in thin melanomas and immunohistochemical analysis of MIB-1 proliferative activity in melanocytic tumors

Metastasis from thin melanomas is rare and unpredictable. In order to assess the prognostic value of the proliferation marker, MIB-1, immunohistochemical staining was evaluated in a retrospective case-control study of 11 thin melanomas with documented metastasis and 11 control tumors that failed to metastasize. Tumors selected were < 1-mm thick and were individually matched for tumor thickness, date of excision, and patient age and sex. Analysis of MIB-1 expression as both a mean and a maximum level for the case and control groups revealed no association with metastasis. Wilcoxon's matched-pairs signed-rank test had p-values of 0.45 for the maximum values and 0.79 for the mean values. For the 11 thin melanomas that metastasized, there was a weak, yet statistically insignificant, correlation between the proportion of cells positive for MIB-1 and the length of the relapse-free period [Spearman's correlation coefficient = 0.20 for the maximum level (p = 0.56) and 0.19 for the mean level (p = 0.58)]. These results suggest that MIB-1 expression may be of limited value as a prognostic marker for increased risk of metastasis in patients with thin melanomas. MIB-1 immunohistochemistry was also performed on 25 benign and 70 malignant paraffin-embedded melanocytic tumors to evaluate the level of MIB-1 expression at different stages of tumor progression. A progressive increase in MIB-1 expression was seen from benign tumors through to primary melanomas, with the highest level seen in metastatic melanomas. Within the group of primary melanomas, the MIB-1 score was shown to correlate significantly with tumor thickness and Clark's level of invasion (Spearman's correlation coefficient = 0.71 for level and 0.77 for thickness).

Eccrine squamous syringometaplasia in the skin of children after burns

We report 3 cases of severe burns in children in which eccrine squamous syringometaplasia (ESS) was found in skin biopsies taken 10 days after the trauma occurred. Microscopic examination showed partial or total necrosis of the epidermis, focal dermal necrosis and squamous metaplasia in eccrine ducts. These cases appear to be the first reported instances of ESS as an early consequence of severe burns.

Incidence of non-melanocytic skin cancer in Geraldton, Western Australia

To measure the rate at which non-melanocytic skin cancers develop, we conducted a population-based, longitudinal study in Geraldton, Western Australia. Subjects were residents of Geraldton, Western Australia, who were between 40 and 64 years of age and registered on the electoral roll in 1987. In 1987 and again in 1992, dermatologists examined participants for skin cancers. They examined all skin areas, apart from those covered by underwear or hair. Subjects were asked about skin cancers that they had had treated between the 2 surveys. When all skin cancers were counted, the incidence rates of basal cell carcinoma were 3,379 per 100,000 person-years in women and 7,067 per 100,000 in men; those of squamous cell carcinoma were 501 per 100,000 in women and 775 per 100,000 in men. Sixteen percent of men and 14% of women developed at least one basal cell carcinoma; 2.8% of men and 2.2% of women had at least one squamous cell carcinoma. Most incident skin cancers were diagnosed at the second examination. More than half of the subjects who had a skin cancer at the first examination developed another. Squamous cell carcinomas occurred almost exclusively on parts of the body that are usually exposed. Basal cell carcinomas were common on the head, neck and trunk but not on the forearms and backs of hands. A quarter of people with a skin cancer on an exposed site also had one on the trunk. Our results show that skin cancer is extremely common in this population and frequently undiagnosed. Multiple skin cancers occur commonly, and skin cancers on exposed sites often are associated with skin cancers on less exposed sites.

Rapidly growing cutaneous tumour of the right temple: Orf

A typical lesion of orf developed on the temple of a 61-year-old man who apparently contracted the infection indirectly. In addition to the classical histological features of epidermal hyperplasia, necrosis, ballooning and vesical formation, the lesion also showed florid pseudoneoplastic vascular proliferation and a prominent component of eosinophils in the dermal inflammation.

Local recurrence of melanoma

The precise classification of local recurrence of melanoma as either persistent incompletely excised primary melanoma or metastasis, is essential to the assessment of the efficacy of the treatment and prognosis, and to the logical conclusion of the debate about margins of excision for melanoma.

The classification of melanoma: time for a further revision?

The current classification of cutaneous melanoma was developed in 1972 and revised in 1982. Since that time new concepts and terminology have evolved that require consideration of a further revision. This paper reviews some of the concepts that will form part of that process. Regional meetings of interested parties have been held to review the classification and there will be an open meeting on the topic at the 1997, 4th World Conference on Melanoma in Sydney, Australia. A questionnaire is included that will allow the interested reader to provide comments on the topic.

Benign melanocytic lesions: risk markers or precursors of cutaneous melanoma?

BACKGROUND

The role of benign melanocytic lesions as precursors and not only as risk markers for the development of cutaneous melanoma is controversial.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of the study was to assess the frequency of the histologic association of benign melanocytic lesions with cutaneous melanoma of a maximum thickness of 1.00 mm. The possibility that the spatial association of benign lesions with melanoma may be coincidental was also investigated.

METHODS

The study subjects representing 289 cases of cutaneous melanoma of maximum thickness 1.00 mm (or less) were examined histologically for the presence of an associated benign melanocytic lesion(s), including lentiginous melanocytic proliferation; junctional, compound, or intradermal nevus; dysplastic nevus; and congenital nevus contiguous with or adjacent to the melanoma. The effects of age, tumor thickness, level of invasion, histologic type, and anatomic site on the association of benign melanocytic lesions with melanoma were assessed. In the control subjects 40 basal cell carcinomas and 38 compound nevi (not dysplastic) randomly chosen and matched for age (+/- 1 year) and site (head/neck, trunk, upper and lower limbs) with a melanoma case were examined to assess the proportion of these cases associated with benign lesions compared with the matched melanoma cases.

RESULTS

A nevus was associated with melanoma in 51% of cases (n = 147). Of these, 82 (56%) were dysplastic nevi, 61 (41%) were common acquired nevi, and 4 (3%) were congenital nevi. Lentiginous melanocytic proliferation was present in the epidermis adjacent to 219 melanomas (75%) and in 44% of these cases (n = 97) a coexisting nevus was also present.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study lend further support to the concept of common acquired nevi and dysplastic nevi as precursors of cutaneous melanoma. In addition, lesions diagnosed clinically as simple lentigo and solar lentigo may be important as potential precursors of melanoma, particularly in the elderly.

Prognostic significance of p53 over-expression in thin melanomas

Metastasis by thin melanomas is uncommon and unpredictable. In order to assess the prognostic value of p53 expression, p53 immunohistochemical staining was evaluated in 20 thin melanomas with documented metastasis and in 20 control tumours which failed to metastasize. Tumours selected were less than 1 mm thick and were individually matched for tumour thickness, date of excision and patient age and sex. The relative risk of metastasis given p53 overexpression was 1.5 (95% confidence interval 0.4-5.3; p = 0.53). Further quantitative analysis for p53 between the two groups did not demonstrate a significant difference (p = 0.08). These results are consistent with there being no association between p53 overexpression in thin melanomas and risk of metastasis, however, the sample size was small, and the existence of such an association cannot be ruled out with confidence. For the 20 thin melanomas which metastasized, there was no association between the proportion of cells positive for p53 and length of the relapse-free period (correlation coefficient = 0.02, p = 0.94).

p53 gene mutation and expression in naevi and melanomas

Mutations of the p53 tumour suppressor gene are common to many human malignancies. Although increased p53 expression has been observed in cutaneous malignant melanoma, mutations of the p53 gene appear to be infrequent. We examined 140 benign and malignant paraffin-embedded melanocytic lesions for p53 protein expression by immunohistochemistry, using the monoclonal anti-p53 antibody DO-7 and a microwave method of antigen retrieval. Fifteen naevi and 25 melanomas were further analysed for p53 mutations within exons 5-8 of the p53 gene. DNA was extracted from paraffin sections and screening for mutations was carried out using PCR-SSCP. We demonstrated p53 protein expression in 33% of naevi (17 out of 51), 35% of primary melanomas (20 out of 58), and 70% of metastatic lesions (15 out of 21). p53 expression in benign lesions was weaker than in malignant lesions in intensity and percentage of cells staining. p53 protein expression in melanomas increased in intensity and percentage of cells staining with tumour progression. In 25% (three out of 12) of metastatic melanomas p53 mutations were detected by PCR-SSCP and increased expression of p53 protein was observed in these tumours. p53 gene mutations were not detected in any benign melanocytic lesions. We demonstrate that antigen retrieval techniques increase p53 immunoreactivity in paraffin embedded melanocytic tissues. p53 protein expression in melanomas increases with depth of tumour invasion. As p53 gene mutations occur infrequently in malignant melanoma, other mechanisms are proposed to influence p53 protein expression in melanocytic lesions.

A dose-response curve for sun exposure and basal cell carcinoma

A population-based case-control study of sun exposure and basal cell carcinoma (BCC) was conducted in Western Australia in 1988. Its aim was to examine the relationship between risk of BCC and the amount and pattern of sun exposure. This report deals with amount of exposure. The odds ratios (ORs) for BCC on the head and neck and limbs decreased with increasing total exposure, whereas the opposite was observed for BCC on the less heavily exposed trunk, with the highest OR in those with the greatest exposure. In an analysis of all body sites together in which the total hours of exposure to the specific site was treated as a continuous variable, an initial rise in risk of BCC was seen with a peak OR of 1.4 at about 35,000 hr of exposure, followed by a fall. In contrast to these site-specific patterns, lifetime accumulated sun exposure of the whole body showed no appreciable association with BCC either in total or for working days only. Risk of BCC was positively associated with lifetime exposure on non-working days, however, with an OR for higher than baseline categories of around 1.7. There was a significant interaction between ability to tan and total and occupational sun exposure. Risk increased with increasing exposure in those who tanned well but not in those who tanned poorly. This pattern is consistent with other observations which indicate that beyond a certain level of sun exposure risk of BCC does not increase further.

Does intermittent sun exposure cause basal cell carcinoma? a case-control study in Western Australia

Our report deals with the relationship of pattern and timing of sun exposure to basal cell carcinoma (BCC) in a population-based case-control study conducted in Western Australia in 1988. The main measure of intermittent exposure was based on the amount of exposure on non-working days relative to that over the whole week. Outdoor recreational activities, holidays and sunburn were also considered to be markers of intermittent exposure. We observed a statistically significant increase in risk of BCC with increasing proportion of weekly sun exposure obtained at the weekend, especially in late teenage (OR = 3.9, 95% CI 1.9-7.8 for maximum intermittency of exposure), exposure of the site of skin cancer during holidays (OR = 1.9, 95% CI 1.1-3.1 for the highest exposure quarter) and sunburn to the site (ORs of 1.8 for 3-10 and 1.5 for 11+ sunburns in a lifetime). Risk of BCC increased substantially with increasing intermittency in poor tanners but not at all in good tanners. Our data suggest that a particular amount of sun exposure delivered in infrequent, probably intense increments will increase risk of BCC more than a similar dose delivered more continuously over the same total period of time.

Fine deletion mapping on the long arm of chromosome 9 in sporadic and familial basal cell carcinomas

Basal cell carcinomas (BCCs) are the most common sporadic cancers worldwide. They are also a cardinal manifestation of a familial cancer predisposition syndrome, naevoid BCC syndrome (NBCCS). The gene responsible for NBCCS is likely to be a tumour suppressor gene and has been genetically mapped to a 2cM region between microsatellite markers, D9S196 and D9S180 at 9q22.3-q31. 101 BCCs (63 sporadic and 38 familial) were examined for loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in the candidate region of the NBCCS gene. Deletions were found in 46% and all LOH is consistent with genetic mapping of the NBCC locus. These findings strongly support the hypothesis that inactivation of the putative tumour suppressor, the NBCCS gene, is important in the formation of sporadic BCCs. One sporadic tumour indicates that the smallest region of overlap of these deletions is within the interval between D9S287 and D9S180. If this is confirmed in additional tumours, it would further narrow down the NBCCS region and exclude one candidate gene, that for the C complementation group of Fanconi anaemia, which maps proximally to D9S287. However, it would not exclude another candidate, the gene for the A complementation group of xeroderma pigmentosum (XPAC). Evidence of imprinting was also sought but preliminary data indicate that it is unlikely to occur at the NBCCS locus.

Malignant mixed tumor of the skin (malignant chondroid syringoma)

Two cases of malignant mixed tumor of skin were studied, one of which demonstrated regional metastasis. The immunohistochemical features of these 2 neoplasms and of the 2 malignant mixed tumors previously described in Western Australia indicate that these neoplasms show eccrine differentiation and suggest their origin from both the secretory and ductal segments of the gland. The histological criteria of malignancy are discussed, with particular reference to those features which indicate malignant potential in neoplasms which otherwise lack overt morphological criteria of malignancy.

Eccrine differentiation in basal cell carcinoma

Eccrine differentiation according to histologic and immunohistochemical criteria was demonstrated in 16 of 66 basal cell carcinomas. The possibility of origin of these neoplasms from the eccrine duct, including the acrosyringium, is discussed in relation to the differences in site distribution and etiology between basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma.

The effects of surgical treatment on survival and local recurrence of cutaneous malignant melanoma

All patients with a diagnosis of cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) in Western Australia from 1980 to 1981 were observed for up to 6 years to determine vital status and to detect the development of local recurrences of the primary lesion. Approximately 35% of all patients had their tumors excised with surgical margins of less than 1 cm. When compared with patients whose tumors were excised with margins of at least 2 cm, the fatality rate in those with narrow margins was slightly less (rate ratio, 0.60; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.20% to 1.80% for margins of 5 to 9 mm; rate ratio, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.26% to 1.87% for margins of 1 to 4 mm); however, this difference could have been caused by chance alone. The risk of local recurrence within 5 years after diagnosis was 2% (95% CI, 1% to 4%). The risk was strongly related to age and tumor thickness, but did not appear to be influenced by the width of excision (greater than 1 cm versus less than 1 cm: rate ratio, 1.03; 95% CI, 0.25% to 4.34%). The apparent lack of effect could be caused by to chance alone because the number of local recurrences was small.

Survival among patients with clinical stage I cutaneous malignant melanoma diagnosed in Western Australia in 1975/1976 and 1980/1981

Five-year survival rates were slightly higher for patients with cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) diagnosed in Western Australia in 1980/1981 (89% in men and 95% in women) than in those whose melanomas were diagnosed in 1975/1976 (88% in men and 91% in women). The improvement in survival was probably due to a decrease in median tumor thickness from 1.29 mm in 1975/1976 to 0.77 mm in 1980/1981 because tumor thickness was the most important histologic index of prognosis. Tumor cell type and cross-sectional profile were the only other histologic characteristics that independently influenced fatality rates. Prognosis was significantly worse in males than in females and in patients with tumors on the posterior head and neck. Ten-year survival rates of patients whose melanomas were diagnosed in 1975/1976 was 82% in men and 87% in women, indicating that these patients continued to experience some excess mortality up to 10 years after diagnosis. The comparatively small improvement in prognosis in the 5-year period between these two groups suggests that survival might be expected to continue to improve only gradually unless there is a sharp absolute decrease in the number of thick tumors diagnosed.

Seasonal variation in the proliferation fraction of Australian common nevi

Image cytometry was used to assess seasonal variation in the proliferation fraction of Australian common nevi. Twenty pairs of nevi were evaluated. One member of each pair had been excised during the Australian summer, and the other member of the pair had been excised during the winter. The nevi were matched for age, sex, and body site. From each nevus, 6-microns sections were Feulgen-stained and evaluated with a CAS 200 image analyzer, which was used to obtain DNA histograms. Proliferation fractions were calculated from the histograms. The proliferation fraction of the nevi removed during the winter was 1.65 +/- 0.32%, whereas the proliferation fraction of the nevi removed during the summer was 1.95 +/- 0.42% (p = 0.41). For nevi from sun-exposed sites only, the proliferation rate of nevi excised during the winter was 1.81 +/- 0.39%, and 2.58 +/- 0.39% for nevi excised during the summer (p = 0.11). For nevi from sun-protected sites, there was no difference between winter and summer. When nevi excised during the summer were compared by site, sun-exposed nevi had a proliferation rate of 2.60 +/- 0.48% (p = 0.04). For nevi excised during the winter, there was a much smaller difference between sun-exposed and sun-protected nevi.

Epidermotropic metastatic melanoma simulating multiple primary melanomas

Epidermotropic metastatic melanoma is usually distinguished from primary melanoma by the limitation of the epidermal involvement of the metastasis to an area overlying the dermal tumor. We report a case demonstrating multiple epidermotropic melanoma metastases with more extensive epidermal involvement simulating primary melanoma that occurred 20 years after excision of the primary tumor.

Pigmentary and cutaneous risk factors for non-melanocytic skin cancer--a case-control study

The roles of ethnic origin, pigmentary traits, sun sensitivity and other cutaneous characteristics as risk factors for basal-cell carcinoma (BCC) and squamous-cell carcinoma (SCC) were examined in a case-control study of prevalent and incident cases of histopathologically confirmed skin cancers. Two hundred and twenty six confirmed cases of BCC, 45 of SCC and 1,015 controls with no lesions were identified in a population-based survey of skin cancer in 1987 in Geraldton, Western Australia. The risk of both cancers was higher in native-born Australians than in migrants. The risk of BCC decreased with increasing age at arrival in Australia. Southern European ancestry was strongly protective against BCC (for any southern European grandparents) and SCC (no case of SCC had any grandparents of southern European origin). Inability to tan was the strongest pigmentary risk factor for both BCC and SCC. Among factors that incorporated a measure of sun exposure as well as sun sensitivity, freckling on the arm in childhood was important for both cancers, the number of moles on the back was important for BCC, and forearm skin colour and having a permanent colour difference between the neck and adjacent protected areas were important for SCC. Among measures of sun damage to the skin, solar elastosis of the neck was a strong risk factor for both BCC and SCC, loss of fine texture of the skin of the back of the hands (as measured by cutaneous microtopography) was important for BCC and telangiectasia of the face for SCC. When all important variables for each cancer were examined together in a single model with age, sex, migrant status or age at arrival in Australia, and ethnicity, in ability to tan, solar elastosis of the neck, and the number of moles on the back were independently significant risk factors for BCC and solar elastosis of the neck and having a permanent colour difference between the neck and adjacent protected areas were independently significant risk factors for SCC. The effects of age at arrival or migrant status and ethnic origin remained important in the models incorporating these factors. A history of ever having acne and a history of warts were protective for BCC and a history of acne was protective for SCC.

Determinants of the reversal time of competitive neuromuscular block by anticholinesterases

We have assessed, in 200 patients, the determinants of the reversal time of competitive neuromuscular block by anticholinesterase when alcuronium and atracurium neuromuscular block were antagonized by neostigmine 0.04 and 0.08 mg kg-1 and edrophonium 0.5 and 1.0 mg kg-1. A biexponential relationship was found between the reversal time (time from injection of anticholinesterase to a train-of-four ratio of 70%) and the degree of neuromuscular block at reversal (all groups; F ratio, P less than 0.05). Reversal time was determined by two processes: direct antagonism by the anticholinesterase and spontaneous recovery of the neuromuscular blocking agent, with the latter becoming the major determinant at profound levels of neuromuscular block (0-10% of control twitch height). Neostigmine, in the doses studied, appeared to have a higher "ceiling" of neuromuscular block which it completely antagonized, although edrophonium had a more rapid onset of action. The reversal time for alcuronium became progressively longer relative to atracurium as neuromuscular block increased because of the slower spontaneous recovery rate. Avoidance of profound neuromuscular block at the completion of surgery is required to ensure reliable antagonism of the block within 5-10 min by an anticholinesterase. Neostigmine 0.08 mg kg-1 was found to be the most effective agent in antagonizing profound neuromuscular block.

Skin cancer in Geraldton, Western Australia: a survey of incidence and prevalence

A survey of the incidence and prevalence of non-melanocytic skin cancer in Geraldton, Western Australia, was undertaken in November 1987. All residents aged 40 to 64 years whose names were on the electoral roll on August 1, 1987 were invited to undergo a whole-body skin examination by a dermatologist. When a skin cancer was suspected, participants were referred for treatment to their usual medical practitioner. Subjects were asked to recall incident skin cancers over the preceding two years, and medical records were searched for confirmatory evidence. Histological confirmation of all lesions, both prevalent and incident, was sought and sections were obtained for a standardized review. The prevalence of confirmed non-melanocytic skin cancer in those aged 40 to 64 years was 7.0% in men and 4.7% in women. The prevalence of basal-cell carcinoma (BCC) was 6.5% in men and 4.5% in women while the prevalence of squamous-cell carcinoma (SCC) was 1.2% in men and 0.3% in women. The estimated incidence rate of non-melanocytic skin cancer in this age group was 1560 per 100,000 person-years. The estimated incidence rate of BCC in men was 1335 per 100,000 person-years, and in women 817 per 100,000, while in men the estimated incidence rate of SCC was 890 per 100,000 person-years, and in women it was 289 per 100,000 person-years.

Primary cutaneous neuroendocrine carcinoma (Merkel cell tumor). An adnexal epithelial neoplasm

We report 18 cases of primary cutaneous neuroendocrine carcinoma (CNEC, Merkel cell tumor) that occurred mainly in the sun-exposed skin of elderly patients as dermal and subcutaneous masses of generally monomorphic cells with foci of pronounced pleomorphism. All 18 cases showed immunoreactivity for neuron-specific enolase (NSE), whereas 16 of them showed immunoreactivity for another neuroendocrine marker, protein gene product 9.5 (PGP 9.5). Positivity for PGP 9.5 was more intense and more sharply localized to tumor cells than the staining for NSE. Immunoreactivity for keratins detected by AE1/AE3 and CAM 5.2 monoclonal antibodies was found in 16 and 15 cases, respectively, with prominent paranuclear globular staining. One case stained positively for S-100 protein; all were negative for leukocyte common antigen (LCA). Typical ultrastructural features of neuroendocrine differentiation were noted in all of 14 tumors examined. Morphological and immunohistochemical similarities between these neoplasms and pulmonary small-cell anaplastic carcinoma, now thought to be of bronchial basal cell origin, suggest that CNEC are also derived from epithelium. In addition, their dermal location suggests that this epithelium is likely to be adnexal rather than epidermal.

Nuclear indices and survival in cutaneous melanoma

Computerized video image analysis of Feulgen-stained paraffin sections was used to assess the relationships of nuclear DNA content and other nuclear morphological characteristics with survival from cutaneous melanoma. The results indicate that nuclear area and deviation from diploidy have effects on survival independent of tumor thickness and the age of the patient. Tumor thickness, however, remained the most important predictor of survival. Video image analysis of tissue sections, by virtue of its speed, simplicity, and accuracy, appears to be a potentially valuable prognostic method.

Reduced density and morphologic alteration of Ia and ADPase positive Langerhans cells after low-protein diet

This study examined the effects of low-protein diet on the population density, morphology and histochemical characteristics of Langerhans cells. Weaned at 18 days old, BALB/c mice were divided into two groups: one group received a high-protein diet (20% casein) and the other was fed an isocaloric low-protein diet (caesin 4%). After 14 days, the mice were killed and the skin of the ears was removed for investigation. Langerhans cells were visualized using ADPase and anti-Ia immunoperoxidase techniques. In protein malnourished mice, the density of ADPase and Ia-positive Langerhans cells was significantly reduced, while morphometric assessment of their cross-sectional area showed a significant reduction of total cell area, cell body area and degree of arborization. Quantitative cytophotometric analysis revealed a reduction of ADPase ectoenzyme activity and decreased concentration of membrane Ia antigen. We postulate that these changes affect Langerhans cell functions, and in turn influence the immune mechanisms in the skin.