Two metallocarboxypeptidase inhibitors are implicated in tomato fruit development and regulated by the Inner No Outer transcription factor

The TCMP-1 and TCMP-2 genes of tomato code for metallocarboxypeptidase inhibitors and show sequential, tightly regulated expression patterns during flower and fruit development. In particular, TCMP-1 is highly expressed in flower buds before anthesis, while TCMP-2 in ripe fruits. Their expression pattern suggests that they might play a role in fruit development. Here, to investigate their function, we altered their endogenous levels by generating transgenic plants harbouring a chimeric gene expressing the TCMP-1 coding sequence under the control of the TCMP-2 promoter. The expression of the transgene caused an earlier fruit setting with no visible phenotypic effects on plant and fruit growth. The altered TCMP-1 regulation determines an increased level of TCMP-1 in the fruit and unexpected changes in the levels of both TCMPs in flower buds before anthesis, suggesting a mechanism of transcriptional cross-regulation. We in silico analysed TCMPs promoter regions for the presence of common cis acting elements related to ovary/fruit development and we found that both promoters contain putative binding sites for INNER NO OUTER (INO), a transcription factor implicated in ovule development. By chromatin immunoprecipitation, we proved that INO binds to TCMP-1 and TCMP-2 promoters, thereby representing a candidate regulatory factor for coordinated control of TCMPs.

Population ecology of heterotypic tumour cell cultures

OBJECTIVES

Here, we propose a population ecology perspective to describe dynamic interplay between human leukaemia and cervical cancer cells growing together in the same environment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MOLT-3 (human T-lymphoblastic leukaemia) and HeLa (human cervical adenocarcinoma) cells were grown together or alone. Living cells were measured using flow cytometry, by counting propidium iodide-negative cells either CD5(+) (MOLT-3) or CD55(+) (HeLa). We developed a mathematical model to take into account possible interactions between cells and among cells and their environmental niches. Model equations were then fitted to growth data.

RESULTS

Ecological interactions that require direct cell contact and indirect mechanisms acting on cell niches, successfully modelled cell population growth. Predicted heterotypic adhesion between the two different cell types was demonstrated experimentally.

CONCLUSIONS

Theoretical ecology can be assayed using human cells and, most importantly, it can provide a conceptual framework to describe and understand evolution of mixed tumour cell populations.

Production and characterisation of monoclonal antibodies for the quantification of potentially allergenic xylanase from Aspergillus niger

Xylanase from Aspergillus niger (ANX) is widely used in bakeries as a processing aid since it stabilises and improves dough quality. An association between allergic symptoms among bakery workers and sensitisation to ANX has been reported, indicating that this enzyme is an occupational allergen. The presence of ANX in dough improvers and semi-finished goods is often hidden due to incomplete and unclear labelling. The quantification of microbial enzymes in these products is necessary and the determination of the actual concentration of ANX in workplaces is therefore essential to assess the occupational risk. To this purpose we have developed and characterised monoclonal antibodies to ANX. The monoclonal antibodies do not show any cross-reaction with other commonly used microbial enzymes, and they allow the detection of ANX in complex mixtures by ELISA inhibition assays down to the concentration limit of approximately 10 µg kg(-1). These mAbs are a valuable tool to detect and quantify ANX and to investigate its allergenic potential in the workplace.

Oscillations in growth of multicellular tumour spheroids: a revisited quantitative analysis

OBJECTIVES

Multicellular tumour spheroids (MTS) provide an important tool for study of the microscopic properties of solid tumours and their responses to therapy. Thus, observation of large-scale volume oscillations in MTS, reported several years ago by two independent groups (1,2), in our opinion represent a remarkable discovery, particularly if this could promote careful investigation of the possible occurrence of volume oscillations of tumours 'in vivo'.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Because of high background noise, quantitative analysis of properties of observed oscillations has not been possible in previous studies. Such an analysis can be now performed, thanks to a recently proposed approach, based on formalism of phenomenological universalities (PUN).

RESULTS

Results have provided unambiguous confirmation of the existence of MTS volume oscillations, and quantitative evaluation of their properties, for two tumour cell lines. Proof is based not only on quality of fitting of the experimental datasets, but also on determination of well-defined values of frequency and amplitude of the oscillations for each line investigated, which would not be consistent with random fluctuation.

CONCLUSIONS

Biological mechanisms, which can be directly responsible for observed oscillations, are proposed, which relates also to recent work on related topics. Further investigations, both at experimental and at modelling levels, are also suggested. Finally, from a methodological point of view, results obtained represent further confirmation of applicability and usefulness of the PUN approach.

Microplate spectrophotometry for high-throughput screening of cytotoxic molecules

OBJECTIVES

High-throughput chemical and biochemical technologies are now exploited by modern pharmacology and toxicology to synthesize a multitude of new molecules with bioactive potential, or to isolate them from living matter. Testing molecules in cell systems on a large scale, however, is a rate-limiting step in drug discovery or in toxicity assessment. In this study, we developed a low-cost high-throughput method for first-level screening of cytotoxic molecules.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used microplate spectrophotometry to measure growth kinetics of human tumour cells that grow in suspension (Molt3) or adherent to the plastic surface of culture wells (HeLa) in standard RPMI medium. Cells were treated with colchicin, idarubicin or paclitaxel under various treatment schedules. The effects were quantified and compared with those measured by optical microscopy using the trypan blue dye exclusion method to reveal dead cells.

RESULTS

Proliferation kinetics of tumour cells can be quantified by measuring variations in optical densities of cell samples at 410 and 560 nm wavelengths. For cells that grow in suspension, one single reading at 730 nm may be sufficient to reconstruct growth curves that parallel those obtained by direct cell counting. Effects of the cytotoxic treatments could also be quantified and results compared very favourably with those obtained using standard techniques.

CONCLUSIONS

Microplate spectrophotometry is a robust and sensitive method to monitor growth of animal cell populations both in the absence and in the presence of cytotoxic drugs. This method implements existing technologies and can be fully automated.

Forecasting the growth of multicell tumour spheroids: implications for the dynamic growth of solid tumours

The growth dynamics of multicell tumour spheroids (MTS) were analysed by means of mathematical techniques derived from signal processing theory. Volume vs. time trajectories of individual spheroids were fitted with the Gompertz growth equation and the residuals (i.e. experimental volume determinations minus calculated values by fitting) were analysed by fast fourier transform and power spectrum. Residuals were not randomly distributed around calculated growth trajectories demonstrating that the Gompertz model partially approximates the growth kinetics of three-dimensional tumour cell aggregates. Power spectra decreased with increasing frequency following a 1/f(delta) power-law. Our findings suggest the existence of a source of 'internal' variability driving the time-evolution of MTS growth. Based on these observations, a new stochastic Gompertzian-like mathematical model was developed which allowed us to forecast the growth of MTS. In this model, white noise is additively superimposed to the trend described by the Gompertz growth equation and integrated to mimic the observed intrinsic variability of MTS growth. A correlation was found between the intensity of the added noise and the particular upper limit of volume size reached by each spheroid within two MTS populations obtained with two different cell lines. The dynamic forces generating the growth variability of three-dimensional tumour cell aggregates also determine the fate of spheroid growth with a strong predictive significance. These findings suggest a new approach to measure tumour growth potential.

A quantitative study of growth variability of tumour cell clones in vitro

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we quantify growth variability of tumour cell clones from a human leukaemia cell line.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We have used microplate spectrophotometry to measure growth kinetics of hundreds of individual cell clones from the Molt3 cell line. Growth rate of each clonal population has been estimated by fitting experimental data with the logistic equation.

RESULTS

Growth rates were observed to vary between different clones. Up to six clones with growth rates above or below mean growth rate of the parent population were further cloned and growth rates of their offspring were measured. Distribution of growth rates of the subclones did not significantly differ from that of the parent population, thus suggesting that growth variability has an epigenetic origin. To explain observed distributions of clonal growth rates, we have developed a probabilistic model, assuming that fluctuation in the number of mitochondria through successive cell cycles is the leading cause of growth variability. For fitting purposes, we have estimated experimentally by flow cytometry the average maximum number of mitochondria in Molt3 cells. The model fits nicely observed distributions in growth rates; however, cells in which mitochondria were rendered non-functional (rho(0) cells) showed only 30% reduction in clonal growth variability with respect to normal cells.

CONCLUSIONS

A tumour cell population is a dynamic ensemble of clones with highly variable growth rates. At least part of this variability is due to fluctuations in the initial number of mitochondria in daughter cells.

Proliferation and death in a binary environment: a stochastic model of cellular ecosystems

The activation, growth and death of animal cells are accompanied by changes in the chemical composition of the surrounding environment. Cells and their microscopic environment constitute therefore a cellular ecosystem whose time-evolution determines processes of interest for either biology (e.g. animal development) and medicine (e.g. tumor spreading, immune response). In this paper, we consider a general stochastic model of the interplay between cells and environmental cellular niches. Niches may be either favourable or unfavourable in sustaining cell activation, growth and death, the state of the niches depending on the state of the cells. Under the hypothesis of random coupling between the state of the environmental niche and the state of the cell, the rescaled model reduces to a set of four non-linear differential equations. The biological meaning of the model is studied and illustrated by fitting experimental data on the growth of multicellular tumor spheroids. A detailed analysis of the stochastic model, of its deterministic limit, and of normal fluctuations is provided.

Expression of myelin basic protein (MBP) epitopes in human non-neural cells revealed by two anti-MBP IgM monoclonal antibodies

Two monoclonal antibodies (1H6.2 and 45.30) were raised against MBP purified from human brain under experimental conditions that allowed MBP to retain binding to surrounding myelin lipids (human lipid-bound MBP (hLB-MBP)). 1H6.2 and 45.30 MoAbs were selected on the basis of their different binding properties to: hLB-MBP, human lipid-free-MBP (hLF-MBP) and bovine lipid-free-MBP (bLF-MBP). Although the isotype of both MoAbs was IgM, their specificity, as tested in ELISA assays against chemical haptens and unrelated protein antigens, was restricted to MBP. 1H6.2 and 45.30 MoAbs stained MBP from human brain white matter tissue extracts, as well as bLF-MBP, in Western blot assays. Both MoAbs stained oligodendrocytes and myelin in immunohistochemical analysis of white matter from human brain. Tissue sections from human peripheral nerves were labelled by 1H6.2 only, however, demonstrating that the MoAbs recognize two different epitopes. Epitopes recognized by 1H6.2 and 45.30 MoAbs were also expressed by a wide array of human non-neural cells of either normal or pathological origin, as evidenced by cytofluorimetric assays. In particular, MBP epitopes (MEs) were expressed by lymphoid cells as well as by cells which play a pivotal role in immune homeostasis and in the immune response, such as thymic epithelial cells and professional antigen-presenting cells. Both MoAbs were efficiently internalized by cells from a human B cell line, suggesting trafficking of MEs along the endocytic pathways. These findings support hypotheses regarding the role of MEs expressed by non-neural cells in establishing self-tolerance and/or in triggering the immune response against MBP antigen.

Analysis of CIITA encoding AIR-1 gene promoters in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and rheumatoid arthritis patients from the northeast of Italy: absence of sequence variability

Qualitative and/or quantitative alterations in the expression of the MHC class II molecules affect the onset and maintenance of the immune response and may be the basis of a wide variety of disease states, such as autoimmunity and immunodeficiency.CIITA is a major physiological regulator of the expression of MHC class II genes. The availability of CIITA ap- pears generally essential for MHC class II gene expression, and hence its own transcriptional regulatory mechanisms result of fundamental importance for a correct homeostasis of the immune response. Therefore, it is possible to hypothesize that variability at the CIITA-encoding locus, AIR-1, could constitute an additional source of susceptible traits to autoimmune diseases. Mutations at AIR-1/CIITA promoters could modulate expression of CIITA. Variations in CIITA expression could influence the qualitative and quantitative expression of MHC class II molecules at cell surface. We have analyzed sequence variation at AIR-1/CIITA promoters by PCR-SSCP in 23 IDDM and 30 RA patients compared to a sample of 19 unaffected normal controls and 16 unaffected IDDM family members, for a total of 88 Caucasian subjects from the Northeast of Italy. No sequence difference was found at the four AIR-1/CIITA promoters between autoimmune patients and normal controls. Moreover, the promoters resulted invariant within the entire group of 88 subjects analyzed, comprising patients and controls. This finding suggests a possible selective advantage in maintaining CIITA upstream regulatory sequences invariant.

A non-parametric method for the analysis of experimental tumour growth data

Analysis of tumour growth is required to investigate the biology of tumours and to determine the effects of new anti-tumour therapies. A non-parametric mathematical method for the analysis of a set of experimental tumour growth data is described. The method is based on the similarity between time series of tumour size measurements (e.g. tumour volume), similarity being defined as the Euclidean distance between data measured for each tumour at the same time. Subsets of similar time series are found for a given population of tumours. A biologically meaningful parameter H has been derived which is a measure of the scattering of experimental volume samples. The method has been applied to the analysis of the growth of (i) untreated multicellular tumour spheroids obtained with different cell lines and (ii) spheroids treated with cytotoxic drugs (immunotoxins). Results are compared with those previously obtained by applying the classical Gompertz growth model to the analysis of treated and untreated spheroids.

Oscillating growth patterns of multicellular tumour spheroids

The growth kinetics of 9L (rat glioblastoma cell line) and U118 (human glioblastoma cell line) multicellular tumour spheroids (MTS) have been investigated by non-linear least square fitting of individual growth curves with the Gompertz growth equation and power spectrum analysis of residuals. Residuals were not randomly distributed around calculated growth trajectories. At least one main frequency was found for all analysed MTS growth curves, demonstrating the existence of time-dependent periodic fluctuations of MTS volume dimensions. Similar periodic oscillations of MTS volume dimensions were also observed for MTS generated using cloned 9L cells. However, we found significant differences in the growth kinetics of MTS obtained with cloned cells if compared to the growth kinetics of MTS obtained with polyclonal cells. Our findings demonstrate that the growth patterns of three-dimensional tumour cell cultures are more complex than has been previously predicted using traditional continuous growth models.

Self-potentiation of ligand-toxin conjugates containing ricin A chain fused with viral structures

A chimeric protein was obtained by fusing together the ricin toxin A chain (RTA) gene and a DNA fragment encoding the N terminus of protein G of the vesicular stomatitis virus. Chimeric RTA (cRTA) retained full enzymic activity in a cell-free assay, but was 10-fold less toxic against human leukemic cells than either native RTA (nRTA) or unmodified recombinant RTA (rRTA). However, conjugates made with cRTA and human transferrin (Tfn) showed 10-20-fold greater cell killing efficacy than Tfn-nRTA or Tfn-rRTA conjugates despite equivalent binding of the three conjugates to target tumor cells. As a consequence, by fusion of the KFT25 peptide to the RTA sequence, the specificity factor (i.e. the ratio between nonspecific and specific cytotoxicity) of Tfn-cRTA was increased 90-240 times with respect to those of Tfn-nRTA and Tfn-rRTA. cRTA interacted with phospholipid vesicles with 15-fold faster kinetics than nRTA at acidic pH. Taken together, our results suggest that the ability of vesicular stomatitis virus protein G to interact with cell membranes can be transferred to RTA to facilitate its translocation to the cell cytosol. Our strategy may serve as a general approach for potentiating the cytotoxic efficacy of antitumor immunotoxins.

Heterogeneous response of individual multicellular tumour spheroids to immunotoxins and ricin toxin

The cytoreductive effects of anti-transferrin receptor (anti-TfnR) immunotoxins (ITs) and of ricin toxin against tumour micromasses have been evaluated in a multicellular tumour spheroid (MTS) model. More than 600 (656) MTSs obtained with human breast carcinoma (MCF7) or rat glioblastoma (9L) cell lines were treated individually with ITs or toxin and the effects induced by the treatment were measured for each MTS as volume variation vs time by applying the Gompertz growth model. Two dose-dependent patterns of MTS growth were observed in MTSs of both cell lines in response to IT or toxin treatment: (1) complete inhibition of MTS growth ('sterilisation'); and (2) partial/complete inhibition ('heterogeneous response'). Within the range of IT or toxin concentrations resulting in partial inhibition of MTS growth, the sensitivity of treated MTSs was extremely heterogeneous (the cytoreductive effects varying between 0.1 and 4 logs of cells killed for a given IT or toxin concentration). Analysis of the post-treatment regrowth kinetics indicated that treated non-sterilised and control MTSs reached the same final limiting volumes. However, the doubling time estimated for the surviving cells of treated MCF7 and 9L MTSs ranged between 15 and 50 h, indicating that each MTS had individual growing potential. In conclusion, our results indicate that at substerilising IT concentrations individual heterogenicity of MTSs may greatly influence the cytoreductive potential of ITs. An implication of our study is that the efficacy of an IT treatment in eradicating disseminated micrometastases may not be predictable a priori. The MTS model that we describe in this paper may help in dissecting out factors limiting the effect of ITs in three-dimensional tumours.

Escape mechanisms of human leukemic cells to long-term immunotoxin treatment in an in vitro experimental model

In kinetic assays, an anti-CD5-ricin A chain (ST.I-RTA) immunoconjugate (immunotoxins, IT) specifically inhibited up to 40% the protein synthesis of Jurkat target cells within the first 40 hr. Longer exposures of leukemia cells to ST.I-RTA resulted in a progressively higher number of target cells escaping IT treatment and becoming resistant to further treatment with ST.I-RTA even in the presence of the RTA-IT enhancer monensin. Resistant Jurkat cells proliferated at the same rate as control untreated cells, and were as sensitive as control cells to a transferrin-RTA IT, indicating that the ST.I-RTA-resistant tumor-cell population did not become insensitive to the enzymatic activity of RTA. Binding studies revealed that the anti-CD5 IT treatment induced a transient modulation of CD5 antigens but not of the functionally related CD3 antigens. The CD5 antigens were re-expressed at the cell surface following removal of the IT molecules from the culture medium with 1.1% of the total CD5 Ag being re-expressed per hr. When our experimental data on the kinetics of cell intoxication by the IT were corrected for the proliferative potential of the resistant and of the sensitive tumor-cell populations, it appeared that the effect of ST.I-RTA treatment on Jurkat cells was only to delay cell growth for a limited time period (20 hr) without reducing effectively the tumor-cell burden. Our results may have implications for the long-term treatment of target tumor cells with IT.

Cytoreductive effects of anti-transferrin receptor immunotoxin in a multicellular tumor spheroid model

We have evaluated the sensitivity to immunotoxins (IT) of monolayer and of 200-250 microns multicellular tumor spheroid (MTS) cultures obtained with human breast (MCF7) and glioblastoma (U118) tumor cells and with rat glioblastoma (9L) cells. Monolayer MCF7 and U118 cells were highly sensitive to antitransferrin receptor (anti-TfnR) ricin A chain (RTA)-IT (Tfn-RTA and MAb OKT9-RTA) treatment in the presence of the intracellular RTA-IT enhancing agent human serum albumin-monensin (HSA-Mo) conjugate. A 790- to 2000-fold higher concentration of anti-TfnR IT was instead required to reduce by 50% the volume of individually treated MCF7 spheroids, as evaluated by applying the Gompertz growth model. Monolayer 9L cells showed 230- to 5700-fold lower sensitivity to Tfn-RTA IT than MCF7 and U118 monolayers, yet 9L spheroid cells were almost as sensitive to anti-TfnR IT as monolayer 9L cultures. Binding studies performed with [125I]-Tfn and FITC-labelled anti-TfnR MAb revealed that 9L monolayers and MTS expressed 4.1-fold and 8.8-fold lower amounts of TfnR than MCF7 monolayers and MTS, respectively. However, Tfn bound to TfnR sites of 9L and of MCF7 cells with comparable affinity. Experiments carried out with the diphtheria toxin mutant CRM107 linked to Tfn confirmed the pattern observed with RTA-IT. Monolayers and spheroids showed no considerable differences in sensitivity to ricin toxin. Collectively, these results indicated that the efficacy of IT against 3-D tumors is heavily influenced by the number of target Ag expressed by the tumor cells, as well as by the affinity of IT/toxin-cell interaction.

Sensitivity of human leukemia cells in exponential or stationary growth phase to anti-CD5 immunotoxins. Role of intracellular processing events

We have assayed the sensitivity of Jurkat cells in different growth phases to an anti-CD5-ricin A chain (ST.1-RTA) immunotoxins (IT). Jurkat cells proliferated exponentially until a stationary growth phase was reached. Proliferating and stationary cells displayed marked differences in sensitivity to ST.1-RTA treatment; the time required to kill one log of target cells (T10) was 70 h in proliferating and 12 h in stationary cells, respectively. Differences in sensitivity to IT treatment were greatly diminished by the addition of the IT enhancer monensin (T10 = 4.9 and 3.5 h in proliferating and stationary cells, respectively). Binding and internalization studies carried out with fluoresceinated ST.1 mAb revealed that the higher sensitivity of stationary cells to ST.1-RTA treatment was not due to an increased uptake or to faster internalization kinetics of IT molecules in this cell population; rather, our data indicated that a different intracellular routing of IT molecules took place in the two cell populations. Mathematical modeling of experimental data allowed us to calculate the efficiency of the intracellular transport of IT molecules toward a subcellular compartment facilitating toxin translocation to the cell cytosol. The IT intracellular processing in stationary cells was 5.5-fold more efficient than in proliferating cells. This value strictly correlated with the higher sensitivity of the stationary cell population to ST.1-RTA treatment.

Sensitivity of human leukemia cells in exponential or stationary growth phase to anti-CD5 immunotoxins. Role of intracellular processing events

We have assayed the sensitivity of Jurkat cells in different growth phases to an anti-CD5-ricin A chain (ST.1-RTA) immunotoxins (IT). Jurkat cells proliferated exponentially until a stationary growth phase was reached. Proliferating and stationary cells displayed marked differences in sensitivity to ST.1-RTA treatment; the time required to kill one log of target cells (T10) was 70 h in proliferating and 12 h in stationary cells, respectively. Differences in sensitivity to IT treatment were greatly diminished by the addition of the IT enhancer monensin (T10 = 4.9 and 3.5 h in proliferating and stationary cells, respectively). Binding and internalization studies carried out with fluoresceinated ST.1 mAb revealed that the higher sensitivity of stationary cells to ST.1-RTA treatment was not due to an increased uptake or to faster internalization kinetics of IT molecules in this cell population; rather, our data indicated that a different intracellular routing of IT molecules took place in the two cell populations. Mathematical modeling of experimental data allowed us to calculate the efficiency of the intracellular transport of IT molecules toward a subcellular compartment facilitating toxin translocation to the cell cytosol. The IT intracellular processing in stationary cells was 5.5-fold more efficient than in proliferating cells. This value strictly correlated with the higher sensitivity of the stationary cell population to ST.1-RTA treatment.

Mechanisms involved in serum-dependent inactivation of the immunotoxin enhancers monensin and carrier-protein-monensin

The immunotoxin-enhancing properties of monensin and of human-serum-albumin-monensin conjugates are severely impaired in the presence of human serum. In this study we have therefore investigated the interaction between serum proteins and monensin leading to the inactivation of monensin function as immunotoxin potentiator. We found that the binding of monensin-specific mAb to thioether-cross-linked or disulfide-cross-linked protein-monensin conjugates is negatively affected by serum, as indicated by immunoenzymic (ELISA) and radioimmunobinding analysis. Size-exclusion chromatography of serum samples indicated that the greatest blocking effect is due to protein components of 40-90 kDa eluting as a broad peak (peak 4). Analysis of the proteins contained within peak 4 by ion-exchange chromatography followed by microsequencing revealed that the major components of peak no. 4 were transferrin, human serum albumin and immunoglobulin fragments. Investigations on the nature of the interactions between serum proteins and monensin leading to monensin inactivation were conducted by affinity chromatography of serum on immobilized human-serum-albumin-monensin conjugates, size-exclusion chromatography, SDS/PAGE analysis of serum-treated human-serum-albumin-monensin conjugates, and evaluation of the stability of immobilized human-serum-albumin-bound 125I-monensin following treatment with serum. Addition of esterase inhibitors (e.g. EDTA, 4-nitrophenyl phosphate) or prior treatment of the serum at 56 degrees C partially reversed the serum effects observed. We conclude that serum proteins block the immunotoxin-enhancing effect of monensin and of human-serum-albumin-monensin conjugates by multiple mechanisms involving hydrophobic and covalent interactions and enzyme-mediated cleavage of protein-bound monensin.

Blocking effect of human serum but not of cerebrospinal fluid on ricin A chain immunotoxin potentiation by monensin or carrier protein-monensin conjugates

The potentiation of monoclonal antibody/ligand toxin (immunotoxin) cytotoxicity by the ionophore monensin (Mo) or by human serum albumin-monensin (HSA-Mo) conjugates was investigated. Since disulfide cross-linked HSA-Mo (HSA-SPDP-Mo) is rapidly inactivated by human serum (M. Colombatti et al., Cancer Res., 50: 1385-1391, 1990), we synthesized thioether cross-linked HSA-Mo conjugates (HSA-SIA-Mo). HSA-SIA-Mo is resistant to treatment with reducing agents (e.g., glutathione, dithiothreitol) and shows potentiating activity identical to that of Mo or of HSA-SPDP-Mo, enhancing immunotoxin (IT) cytotoxicity 45-35,000-fold. Human leukemic and tumor cell lines are highly sensitive to treatment with IT in combination with Mo, HSA-SPDP-Mo, or HSA-SIA-Mo (concentration required to inhibit protein synthesis by 50%, 10(-10)-2.5 x 10(-13) M). IT potentiation by both types of HSA-Mo conjugates, however, is inhibited by whole human serum. In contrast, human cerebrospinal fluid has no effect on the potentiation of IT by Mo or HSA-Mo conjugates. The serum blocking factors reside mostly in a Mr 40,000-90,000 protein fraction. Serum components of low molecular weight (less than 10,000) show no detectable effect upon the stability of HSA-Mo conjugates. The toxicity of HSA-SIA-Mo in vivo was investigated by intrathecal injections in rats. Concentrations of up to 60 micrograms/kg can be injected into the brain with only transient neurological sequelae. We therefore conclude that if the systemic delivery of HSA-Mo conjugates for the potentiation of ricin A chain-IT presents some limitations due to the blocking effect of serum, the application of HSA-Mo conjugates in combination with ricin A chain-IT for regional tumor therapy in the brain appears more promising.

Distribution of endocytosed molecules to intracellular acidic environments correlates with immunotoxin activity

We have investigated the internalization to low pH intracellular compartments of transferrin (Tfn), diphtheria toxin (DT) and of anti-cell surface antibodies (MAb) by a cytofluorometric assay based on low pH quenching of fluorescein (FITC) emission. FITC-labelled Tfn, anti-CD3, anti-CD5 and anti-Thy 1.2 MAb internalization resulted in a progressively lower FITC quenching effect. Following internalization, a distinction could be made between molecules that enter low pH compartments without undergoing intracellular degradation (e.g., Tfn, anti-CD3 MAb) and molecules that are internalized through low pH organelles and are then degraded within the cell (e.g., DT). A strict correlation was observed between quenching of internalized FITC-protein fluorescent emission and the cytotoxic activity of DT-based immunotoxins (IT).

Carrier protein-monensin conjugates: enhancement of immunotoxin cytotoxicity and potential in tumor treatment

We have investigated the potentiation of transferrin [Tfn]-toxin [Tfn-ricin toxin A chain (RTA) and Tfn-So6 saporin toxin] and monoclonal antibody-RTA conjugates by monensin (Mo) and by a human serum albumin (HSA)-monensin conjugate in vitro. The in vivo survival and in vitro and in vivo toxicity of HSA-Mo were also studied; monensin was chemically linked to HSA carrier protein via a disulfide bridge. HSA-Mo was 2-13-fold less toxic than Mo for cells in vitro. HSA-Mo was active in the same concentration range as Mo in potentiating mAb-RTA and Tfn-toxin conjugates reactive with Tfn receptors expressed by different cell lines in monolayer cell cultures. Multicell tumor spheroid cultures were used to investigate the target cell killing effect of cytotoxic conjugates and HSA-Mo in three-dimensional structures mimicking the properties of nonvascularized micrometastases. Spheroids 300-400 microns were as sensitive to Tfn-RTA and HSA-Mo in combination as monolayer cells. After 24 h incubation at 37 degrees C in human serum about 2% HSA-Mo molecules remained available for immunotoxin potentiation and about 10% after 24 h incubation in human cerebrospinal fluid. BALB/c mice tolerated injections of 2 mg/kg HSA-Mo i.v. and of 16 mg/kg i.p. The HSA-Mo half-life in the serum of BALB/c mice was 0.5 h. Following i.v. injection about 0.5% of the initial HSA-Mo persisted in the circulation at 24 h.