The Relation Between Cognitively Measured Executive Functions and Reported Self-Regulated Learning Strategy Use in Adult Online Distance Education

While executive functions (EFs) and self-regulated learning (SRL) strategy use have been found to be related in several populations, this relationship has not been studied in adult online distance education (ODE). This is surprising as self-regulation, and thus using such strategies, is very important here. In this setting, we studied the relation between basic executive functions (i.e., working memory and shifting, measured with cognitive tests) and reported SRL-strategy use (i.e., management of time and effort, complex and simple cognitive strategy use, contacts with others, and academic thinking) within a correlational design with 889 adult online distance students. In this study, we performed regression analyses and took age and processing speed into consideration, as processing speed and EFs decrease with age, whereas self-regulation is reported to increase with age. Cognitively measured working memory was not related to reported SRL-strategy use in adult ODE students. Thus, even though the SRL-components within the strategies seem to elicit working memory, reported SRL-strategy use is not related to the functioning of this basic EF (measured with cognitive tests). This means that if SRL-strategy use needs to be increased in adult ODE students, training of working memory might not be an effective manner for achieving that goal. Better shifting and processing speed were related to less reported SRL-strategy use, which might suggest that SRL-strategies might be used to compensate for lower shifting (in academic thinking) and lower processing speed (in simple cognitive strategy use and contacts with others). With increasing age, the number of contacts with peers or teachers decreases. This latter finding might be of relevance during the pandemic since contacts with others is importance during lockdown.

Decline in physical activity during adolescence is not associated with changes in mental health

Background

The majority of studies investigating associations between physical activity and mental health in adolescents have been cross-sectional in design. Potential associations between physical activity and mental health may be better examined longitudinally as physical activity levels tend to decrease in adolescence. Few studies have investigated these associations longitudinally in adolescents and none by measuring physical activity objectively.

Methods

A total of 158 Dutch adolescents (mean age 13.6 years, 38.6 % boys, grades 7 and 9 at baseline) participated in this longitudinal study. Physical activity, depressive symptoms and self-esteem were measured at baseline and at the 1-year follow-up. Physical activity was objectively measured with an ActivPAL3™ accelerometer during one full week. Depressive symptoms were measured with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) and self-esteem was assessed with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE). Results were analysed using structural equation modelling.

Results

Physical activity levels decreased 15.3 % over a 1-year period (p < .001), with significantly (p = .001) greater decreases during grade 7 (-20.7 %) than during grade 9 (-5.0 %). Overall, depressive symptoms decreased (-12.1 %, p < .001) over a 1-year period, while self-esteem did not change significantly (+2.9 %, p = .066). Higher levels of depressive symptoms at baseline predicted a greater decline in depressive symptoms (β = -.51, p < .001) and higher levels of self-esteem at baseline predicted a smaller increase in self-esteem (β = -.48, p < .001). The decline in physical activity did not appear to predict any change in depressive symptoms and self-esteem.

Conclusion

The decline in physical activity over a 1-year period during adolescence is not associated with a change in mental health. Further studies in adolescents aiming to investigate whether a change in physical activity is associated with a change in mental health should control for baseline levels of mental health and academic year differences.

Active commuting to school, cognitive performance, and academic achievement: an observational study in Dutch adolescents using accelerometers

Background

The current study examined the associations between active commuting to school, cognitive performance, and academic achievement in Dutch adolescents. In addition, it was explored whether these associations were moderated by sex and mediated by depressive symptoms.

Methods

Students in grades 7 and 9 (N = 270; mean age 13.4 years; 53% boys) were included. Active commuting to school was measured objectively by an ActivPAL3™ accelerometer. Cognitive performance was measured by the d2 Test of attention (key components of executive functioning) and the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (information-processing speed). Academic achievement was determined by the mean of the school grades obtained in Dutch, mathematics and English. Depressive symptoms were self-reported.

Results

Active commuting to school constituted 28% of the total amount of time spent moving per week. Active commuting to school was not significantly associated with cognitive performance and academic achievement, overall. However, active commuting to school was positively associated with performance on the d2 Test of attention in girls (β = .17, p = .037), but not in boys (β = −.03, p = .660). The associations were not mediated by depressive symptoms.

Conclusions

The associations between active commuting to school and cognitive performance and academic achievement are weak and might be moderated by sex, while the greatest benefits on cognition due to active commuting to school might be with regard to executive functioning. Future studies might make use of experimental designs, because causal relations between active commuting to school and cognitive performance or academic achievement would provide important implications for both education and public health.

The Dutch Memory Compensation Questionnaire: psychometric properties and regression-based norms

The Memory Compensation Questionnaire (MCQ) is a psychometrically sound instrument that assesses the variety and extent to which an individual compensates for actual or perceived memory losses. Until now, only an English version of the MCQ has been psychometrically evaluated. The aim of the present study was to establish a Dutch version of the MCQ and evaluate its psychometric properties. The MCQ data of N = 556 cognitively healthy adults (61.8% females) aged between 50.1 and 95.3 years (M = 73.9 years, SD = 8.0) were analyzed. The results showed that the factor structure of the Dutch version of the MCQ corresponded well with that of the English version of the MCQ. The reliabilities of the scales of the Dutch version of the MCQ were all high (all Cronbach's αs ≥ .77). Demographic variables (especially age and gender) affected most of the MCQ scale scores. Regression-based normative data that take these demographic influences into account were established, and a user-friendly computer program was provided to facilitate the scoring and norming of the MCQ.