Evaluating long-term emission impacts of large-scale electric vehicle deployment in the US using a human-Earth systems model

While large-scale adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) globally would reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) and traditional air pollutant emissions from the transportation sector, emissions from the electric sector, refineries, and potentially other sources would change in response. Here, a multi-sector human-Earth systems model is used to evaluate the net long-term emission implications of large-scale EV adoption in the US over widely differing pathways of the evolution of the electric sector. Our results indicate that high EV adoption would decrease net CO2 emissions through 2050, even for a scenario where all electric sector capacity additions through 2050 are fossil fuel technologies. Greater net CO2 reductions would be realized for scenarios that emphasize renewables or decarbonization of electricity production. Net air pollutant emission changes in 2050 are relatively small compared to expected overall decreases from recent levels to 2050. States participating in the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative experience greater CO2 and air pollutant reductions on a percentage basis. These results suggest that coordinated, multi-sector planning can greatly enhance the climate and environmental benefits of EVs. Additional factors are identified that influence the net emission impacts of EVs, including the retirement of coal capacity, refinery operations under reduced gasoline demands, and price-induced fuel switching in residential heating and in the industrial sector.

Incorporating upstream emissions into electric sector nitrogen oxide reduction targets

Electricity production is a major source of air pollutants in the U.S. Policies to reduce these emissions typically result in the power industry choosing to apply controls or switch to fuels with lower combustion emissions. However, the life-cycle emissions associated with various fuels can differ considerably, potentially impacting the effectiveness of fuel switching. Life-cycle emissions include emissions from extracting, processing, transporting, and distributing fuels, as well as manufacturing and constructing new generating capacity. The field of life-cycle analysis allows quantification of these emissions. While life-cycle emissions are often considered in greenhouse gas mitigation targets, they generally have not been included in air quality policymaking. We demonstrate such an approach, examining a hypothetical electric sector emission reduction target for nitrogen oxides (NO_x) using the Global Change Assessment Model with U.S. state-level resolution. When only power plant emissions are considered in setting a NOx emission reduction target, fuel switching leads to an increase in upstream emissions that offsets 5% of the targeted reductions in 2050. When fuel extraction, processing, and transport emissions are included under the reduction target, accounting for 20% of overall NO_x reduction goal, the resulting control strategy meets the required reductions and does so at 35% lower cost by 2050. However, manufacturing and construction emissions increase and offset up to 7% of NO_x reductions in electric sector, indicating that it may be beneficial to consider these sources as well. Assuming no legal obstacles exist, life-cycle-based approaches could be implemented by allowing industry to earn reduction credits for reducing upstream emissions. We discuss some of the limitations of such an approach, including the difficulty in identifying the location of upstream emissions, which may occur across regulatory authorities or even outside of the U.S.

Evolution of the United States Energy System and Related Emissions under Varying Social and Technological Development Paradigms: Plausible Scenarios for Use in Robust Decision Making

The energy system is the primary source of air pollution. Thus, evolution of the energy system into the future will affect society's ability to maintain air quality. Anticipating this evolution is difficult because of inherent uncertainty in predicting future energy demand, fuel use, and technology adoption. We apply scenario planning to address this uncertainty, developing four very different visions of the future. Stakeholder engagement suggested that technological progress and social attitudes toward the environment are critical and uncertain factors for determining future emissions. Combining transformative and static assumptions about these factors yields a matrix of four scenarios that encompass a wide range of outcomes. We implement these scenarios in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency MARKet ALlocation (MARKAL) model. Results suggest that both shifting attitudes and technology transformation may lead to emission reductions relative to the present, even without additional policies. Emission caps, such as the Cross-State Air-Pollution Rule, are most effective at protecting against future emission increases. An important outcome of this work is the scenario-implementation approach, which uses technology-specific discount rates to encourage scenario-specific technology and fuel choices. End-use energy demands are modified to approximate societal changes. This implementation allows the model to respond to perturbations in manners consistent with each scenario.

Exploring the role of natural gas power plants with carbon capture and storage as a bridge to a low-carbon future

Natural gas combined-cycle (NGCC) turbines with carbon capture and storage (CCS) could be an important source of low-carbon electricity in the future. Factors affecting the market competitiveness of NGCC-CCS are examined by conducting a sensitivity analysis using the MARKet ALlocation energy system optimization model. The results indicate that widespread deployment of NGCC-CCS is better suited for a 30% energy system greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction trajectory than for a more stringent 50% reduction trajectory. Methane leakage rate, efficiency penalty, carbon dioxide (CO2) capture rate, and natural gas price are found to be the strongest factors influencing optimal NGCC-CCS deployment, in that order. NGCC plays an important role in meeting mid-term GHG targets across all model runs. A large portion of NGCC capacity is later retrofit with CCS, indicating that NGCC can be both a bridge to a low-carbon future and an integral part of that future. Thus, retrofitability and siting near CO2storage should be considerations as new NGCC capacity is built. Regional results indicate that NGCC-CCS deployment would be greatest in the West South Central region, followed by the East North Central region. In a business-as-usual scenario, both regions have considerable electricity production from fossil fuels. Conventional coal and gas capacity are displaced under a GHG reduction target, opening the door for NGCC-CCS in these regions. NGCC-CCS market penetration is projected to have a mixed impact on air pollutant emissions and energy-related water consumption. Whether impacts are positive or negative depends on the technologies displaced by NGCC-CCS.

How much do electric drive vehicles matter to future U.S. emissions?

Hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and battery electric vehicles--known collectively as electric drive vehicles (EDVs)--may represent a clean and affordable option to meet growing U.S. light duty vehicle (LDV) demand. The goal of this study is 2-fold: identify the conditions under which EDVs achieve high LDV market penetration in the U.S. and quantify the associated change in CO2, SO2, and NOX emissions through midcentury. We employ the Integrated MARKAL-EFOM System (TIMES), a bottom-up energy system model, along with a U.S. data set developed for this analysis. To characterize EDV deployment through 2050, varying assumptions related to crude oil and natural gas prices, a CO2 policy, a federal renewable portfolio standard, and vehicle battery cost were combined to form 108 different scenarios. Across these scenarios, oil prices and battery cost have the biggest effect on EDV deployment. The model results do not demonstrate a clear and consistent trend toward lower system-wide emissions as EDV deployment increases. In addition to the trade-off between lower tailpipe and higher electric sector emissions associated with plug-in vehicles, the scenarios produce system-wide emissions effects that often mask the effect of EDV deployment.

Effectiveness of a nasoseptal cartilaginous graft for repairing traumatic fractures of the inferior orbital wall

The goals of reconstruction after an orbital fracture are to restore the continuity of the floor, provide support for the orbital contents, and prevent fibrosis of the soft tissues. Nasoseptal cartilage is an easily accessible, abundant, and autogenous source that supports the orbital floor and gives minimal donor site morbidity. We evaluated the effectiveness of nasoseptal cartilage for repairing traumatic defects of the orbital floor. Autogenous nasoseptal cartilage was used in 20 patients. Presence or absence of diplopia, enophthalmos, paraesthesia of the infraorbital nerve, dystopia, range of covering of the defect by nasoseptal cartilage, complications at the recipient and donor sites, resorption of the graft, and ocular mobility disorders were recorded. Entrapment of orbital tissues, a large orbital defect (more than 50% of orbital floor or more than 8mm), or defects of the orbital floor with involvement of other fractures of the zygomaticofrontal complex are indications for exploration of the orbit. In one case after 24 months, the surgical field was explored for direct evaluation of the efficacy of the graft. All patients were treated successfully by restoration of the continuity of the orbital floor. Six months to 2 years follow up showed only one patient with postoperative enophthalmos. There was no donor site morbidity, and no grafts became infected or extruded. The nasoseptal graft was completely covered with underlying tissue. Nasoseptal cartilage is readily accessible autogenous tissue that should be considered when an autogenous graft is needed for reconstruction of a defect of the orbital floor.