The Role of Emotional Processes in Explaining the Link Between Severity of Childhood Maltreatment and Relationship Difficulties

Up to 32% of adults have experienced some form of childhood maltreatment (CM). Research has shown that these early childhood experiences are associated with a variety of interpersonal difficulties in adult sexual and romantic relationships. Polusny and Follette have suggested that these negative long-term effects are the result of emotional avoidance strategies that individuals use to cope with thoughts, feelings, and memories associated with CM. The present study tested this theorized mediational model with a sample of 150 participants, all of whom were currently in long-term relationships. Participants completed questionnaires designed to assess the severity of CM, fear of their own emotions, and a task designed to assess their accuracy at identifying emotions. Additionally, participants completed a variety of measures assessing the quality of their sexual and romantic relationships. These measures assessed their satisfaction, their communication, and the extent of problems in each domain. Our results showed that higher levels of CM were associated with lower satisfaction with communication and more problems in both the romantic and sexual domains. In regard to our mediational hypothesis, we found partial support showing that fear of one's own emotions and emotion recognition mediated some of these associations. Our findings suggest that treatments targeting affective processes may be particularly important for helping victims of CM.

How attachment styles predict changes in sexual desire: A study of sexual dynamics in COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has had far-reaching impacts on many aspects of life, including sexual behaviours and preferences. In this longitudinal study, the authors used attachment theory to investigate changes in an individual’s sexual desire for their partner as well as changes in their sexual desire for someone other than their primary romantic partner (extradyadic desire) over the first wave of the pandemic in Canada. Based on past research that has shown that avoidant individuals tend to avoid intimacy, the authors reasoned that increased contact with their romantic partner due to physical distancing guidelines and lockdown rules would contribute to avoidant individuals’ experiencing less sexual desire for their partner and greater extradyadic desire over time. In contrast, individuals high on attachment anxiety tend to seek proximity, especially during times of stress. The authors predicted that individuals’ sexual desire for their partner would increase and their extradyadic desire would decrease. They tested these hypotheses using a cohabiting, dyadic sample ( N = 308 individuals); study participants were contacted at 1-month intervals for three successive months and asked to complete an online survey. Our hypotheses were partially supported. As predicted, individuals high on attachment avoidance experienced higher levels of extradyadic desire, and individuals high on attachment anxiety reported lower extradyadic desire over time. Contrary to predictions, however, neither attachment pattern was associated with changes in sexual desire for the partner. The authors examine the theoretical implications of these findings, highlighting the need for a more fine-grained assessment of stress and the interaction between stress and attachment orientations in future research.

Perceived barriers and rewards to sexual consent communication: A qualitative analysis

Increasingly, affirmative consent - direct, unambiguous and voluntary agreement to engage in sexual activity (Craig & McKinley, 2015) - is the standard being adopted by educational institutions in North America (Bennett, 2016). Yet, studies show that most individuals continue to communicate consent through nonresistance (Jozkowski et al., 2014a). Given this discrepancy, it is critical to understand what factors prevent individuals from engaging in affirmative consent. Furthermore, a better understanding of the perceived rewards of consent communication could incentivize the adoption of affirmative consent. To understand the range of perceived barriers and rewards, we conducted an online, qualitative study where 231 participants answered two open-ended questions. We used inductive content analysis to categorize participants' perceptions of sexual consent barriers and rewards into four general content areas: (1) Communication Quality, (2) Relational and Emotional Experiences, (3) Sexual Quality and (4) Safety and Coercion. These perceived rewards and barriers were examined through the lens of the Information-Motivation-Behavioural Skills Model. Participants viewed consent communication not only as a means of ensuring safety but also as a way to enhance relational and sexual quality. However, they also perceived barriers in all three of these domains as well as barriers to ensuring that sexual consent communication is fluid and easily understood. These findings provide important avenues for future research investigating how individuals reconcile perceived rewards and costs of affirmative consent communication. We also suggest ways to enhance sexual education by discussing potential rewards and validating the normative nature of fears and anxieties around affirmative consent.

Couple Communication Behaviors During Sexual and Nonsexual Discussions and Their Association with Relationship Satisfaction

The quality of communication between romantic partners has consistently been found to be associated with relationship well-being and stability. Studies on sexual and nonsexual communication, however, have typically assessed communication skills and behaviors using self-report measures. The use of observational methods has several advantages, including the ability to capture and allow for the independent coding of both partners' communication behaviors. With few exceptions, research applying observational methods has not distinguished between sexual and nonsexual communication behaviors. In the present study, we asked 126 young, mixed-sex couples to engage in sexual and nonsexual conflict discussions. The two 7-min discussions were videotaped and rated by trained coders on nine behavioral dimensions using an adaptation of the specific affect coding system (Gottman & Krokoff, 1989) and the system for coding interactions and family functioning (Lindahl & Malik, 2001). Coder ratings applied to the discussion as a whole. Analyses included factor analysis on the behavioral dimensions and multilevel modeling incorporating the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM). We found significant differences in how couples interacted during the two discussions, with more positive (affectionate and validating) and less negative behaviors during sexual discussions as compared to nonsexual discussions. In both women and men, expressions of positivity during the two types of conflict discussions were associated with higher relationship satisfaction. Gender differences were found in the association between negative behaviors during sexual discussions and relationship satisfaction, with men but not women's negative behaviors being associated with lower relationship satisfaction. These findings point at distinct qualities of sexual communication and its association with couples' relational well-being and contribute to a better scientific understanding, with clinical relevance, of sexual and nonsexual communication.

The link between oxytocin plasma levels and observed communication behaviors during sexual and nonsexual couple discussions: An exploratory study

The role of oxytocin (OT) in close relationships is complex, as both positive and negative associations have been found between OT and relationship processes. Also, with most research focusing on the effects of exogenous OT administration on communication and couple behaviors, our knowledge about the association between endogenous OT and couple dynamics remains limited. This study is the first to assess the link between peripheral OT levels and observed communication behaviors during sexual and nonsexual conflict discussions in romantic relationships. A sample of 126 young, heterosexual couples (Mean age = 23.3, SD = 2.4; average relationship duration = 1.9 years, SD = 0.9) participated in videotaped sexual and nonsexual couple conflict discussions of 7 min each. Communication behaviors were coded using an adaptation of the Specific Affect Coding System (SPAFF) and the System for Coding Interactions and Family Functioning (SCIFF). Blood samples were collected prior to the couple discussions, during a separate lab visit, and OT plasma levels were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Plasma OT levels were positively associated with validating behaviors during sexual discussions in both women (r = +.24, p = .008) and men (r = +.18, p = .052). No significant associations were found between OT levels and validating behaviors during nonsexual discussions and between OT and affectionate and negative behaviors during either sexual or nonsexual discussions. Analyses revealed significant associations between OT levels and one's own validating behaviors during sexual discussions (b = 47.82, t(201.16) = 3.81, p < .001) and one's partner's (b = 32.12, t(216.35) = 2.62, p = .009). The results highlight the biobehavioral aspects of couples' sexual communication and may contribute to a better understanding of the processes involved in individual and relational well-being. This study is the first to report an association between peripheral OT levels and validating behaviors during sexual communication, indicating neurophysiological involvement in dyadic sexual communication patterns.

A Mixed-Method Analysis of Women's Attributions about Their Partner's Pornography Use

We used a mixed-method design to examine the attributions women in mixed-gender/sex relationships make for their partner's perceived pornography use and whether such attributions covary with women's relationship and sexual satisfaction. A final sample of 199 women completed measures of relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and their perceptions of partner's pornography use. Participants also completed three open-ended questions assessing their attributions of their partner's perceived pornography use. Qualitative analyses revealed 11 themes in women's attributions of their partner's perceived pornography use; some of the themes reflected on women themselves (e.g., being open-minded and accepting), whereas other themes reflected on the partner (e.g., partner is sexually bored) or the relationship (e.g., strong and trusting relationship). Furthermore, the women made positive, negative, and neutral attributions. Quantitative analyses showed that positive attributions were significantly more frequent than neutral or negative attributions and the latter two categories did not differ significantly from each other. Also, greater frequency of positive and neutral attributions and lower frequency of negative attributions were associated with higher relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction. Our results suggest that women make a range of attributions about their partner's pornography use and that this variation relates meaningfully to indices of relationship functioning.

A Typology of Women with Low Sexual Desire

Low sexual desire is the most common sexual issue reported by women and research suggests that the presentation and experience of low sexual desire may vary considerably between women. This study explored whether women with low desire differ qualitatively from one another based on several key contextual factors theoretically associated with low desire. We collected data from women in long-term relationships (N = 508) using an online platform. Using latent profile analysis, we explored whether women could be distinguished from one another based on several contextual variables (sexual and relationship satisfaction, life stress, sexual communication). Results supported a 3-profile solution, with two distinct profiles emerging for women with low sexual desire. The first profile consisted of women with low desire who were dissatisfied with the sexual and nonsexual aspects of their relationships (Globally Distressed Group: 8%). The second profile consisted of women with low desire who were sexually, but not relationally, dissatisfied (Sexually Dissatisfied Group: 24%). In addition, a third profile emerged that consisted of generally satisfied women with average desire (Average Desire Group: 67%). t-tests revealed that the two low desire groups shared similar mean levels of sexual desire, but that their overall presentations were conceptually distinct. This research supports a categorical conceptualization of low sexual desire in women and suggests that evaluating category membership for women with low desire can provide valuable information about women's sexual experiences beyond assessing mean levels of sexual desire alone.

A Descriptive Analysis of Sexual Problems in Long-Term Heterosexual Relationships

BACKGROUND

Although much research has described individual sexual dysfunctions, few studies to date have examined the types of problems that couples consider most significant in their sexual relationships.

AIM

To clarify the types of relational sexual problems that are most common and most severe in the sexual lives of individuals in long-term romantic relationships.

METHODS

A community sample of 117 mixed-sex couples completed this in-lab study. Members of each couple separately completed a demographics questionnaire and a measure of their relational sexual problems, the Sexual Problems Questionnaire (SPQ). Descriptive analyses (eg, examination of means, frequency counts) were conducted to determine the most common and severe sexual problems reported by participants. t-Tests were performed to examine gender differences in mean severity ratings for each SPQ item. Qualitative data were examined by conducting a frequency count on the SPQ items that participants reported to be most important in their sexual relationships. Results of all frequency counts were divided by the total sample size and are reported as percentages.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Participants reported on the severity of their sexual problems using the 25-item SPQ.

RESULTS

Quantitative analyses revealed that the most common and problematic sexual problems endorsed by both sexes were frequency of sex, sexual initiation, and showing interest. A frequency count of participants' qualitative reports also revealed that frequency of sex (women = 36%; men = 39%), sexual initiation (women = 33%; men = 32%), and showing interest (women and men = 25%) were the most important sexual issues for most individuals.

CLINICAL IMPLICATION

The most pressing relational sexual problems for couples in long-term romantic relationships are consistent between sexes and pertain to the domain of sexual desire.

STRENGTH & LIMITATIONS

The current study used an expanded measure of sexual problems, which allowed participants to report on a broad range of issues in their sexual relationships. The direction of such relational sexual problems (eg, desiring more or less sexual frequency) was not explored.

CONCLUSION

The key problems in sexual relationships center on the theme of sexual desire, and men and women consider these issues to be problematic to a similar extent. Sutherland SE, Rehman US, Fallis EE. A Descriptive Analysis of Sexual Problems in Long-Term Heterosexual Relationships. J Sex Med 2019;16:701-710.

Viewing Sexual Desire as Stable Versus Fluid: The Impact of Implicit Beliefs on Women's Coping With Sexual Desire Problems

Our goal was to examine how implicit theories can be applied to understanding women's coping responses to sexual problems. The belief that sexual desire changes over time is a type of incremental theory, while the belief that sexual desire is stable is a type of entity theory (Dweck, 2012 ). We examined how different implicit theories of sexual desire influence how women cope with sexual desire challenges. Also, we sought to determine whether women's perceptions of experiencing a sexual desire challenge moderate the relationship between their implicit beliefs and their coping responses. We randomly assigned women to read an article designed to induce either an entity or incremental theory about sexual desire. We further asked them to indicate how true it is that they have experienced, or are likely to experience, a sexual desire problem (1 = not at all true to 4 = very true). They then completed a measure of coping with desire problems, the Modified Cope Inventory. Results from both studies showed that women primed with entity theories who expected to experience a sexual desire issue reported significantly more negative coping than women primed with incremental theories. Implications of this research and future directions are discussed.

The Influence of Attachment Styles on Sexual Communication Behavior

Attachment theory is one of the major theoretical frameworks for understanding romantic relationships. Attachment styles are formed through interactions with caregivers and shape an individual's expectations of subsequent interpersonal relationships. In this study, we examined how attachment styles influence participants' ability to communicate with their partners about problems in their sexual relationship. A community sample of 81 couples engaged in two video-recorded discussions, one representing an aspect of the couple's sexual relationship where the male partner wanted change and the second representing an aspect of the sexual relationship where the female partner wanted change. Conversations were then coded, with each person being rated on three positive communication dimensions (positive affect, offering solutions, and responsiveness) and three negative communication dimensions (hostility, negative affect, and unskilled communication behaviors). As predicted, attachment avoidance was related to more negative and less positive communication for both the individual and his or her partner. Our observational data did not reveal any significant effects of attachment anxiety on sexual communication. These results can be contrasted with findings from self-report studies that do suggest an anxious attachment adversely impacts sexual communication.

How Is Sexual Communication Different from Nonsexual Communication? A Moment-by-Moment Analysis of Discussions Between Romantic Partners

Our goal was to investigate whether systematic differences exist in how couples discuss sexual versus nonsexual conflicts in their relationships and to explore the nature of these differences. We compared sexual and nonsexual conflict discussions on two key dimensions of interpersonal behavior: warmth and dominance. Past theoretical work suggests that there are unique barriers to sexual communication that lead partners to perceive such communication as being more threatening to the relationship and to the self (Metts & Cupach, 1989). Empirical findings have supported this perspective by demonstrating that sexual communication tends to be avoided by couples (e.g., Byers, 2011). Extending this notion further, we reasoned that relationship partners should behave in ways to mitigate the increased perceived threat associated with sexual communication, leading to observable differences in how couples navigate sexual versus nonsexual relationship conflicts. We recruited a sample of 115 couples in established relationships and asked each couple to engage in two recorded interactions: one sexual and one nonsexual conflict discussion. Subsequently, each partner was coded continuously on the two dimensions of warmth and dominance. We found a number of differences in how couples discussed sexual versus nonsexual conflicts. Further, couples reported higher levels of anxiety in advance of sexual, as compared to nonsexual, conflict discussions. However, anxiety did not mediate the observed differences in communication. The theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

The longitudinal association of relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction in long-term relationships

Several prominent models of relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction imply directional relationships between these constructs (e.g., attachment theory, social exchange models of relationship satisfaction, the interpersonal exchange model of sexual satisfaction). Previous research has demonstrated that sexual satisfaction and relationship satisfaction are distinct but correlated constructs, but relatively few studies have examined how they are related over time. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine this association. A sample of heterosexual couples (N = 113) completed a longitudinal study spanning 2 years. At Times 1 and 2 they completed measures of relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction. Data were analyzed according to the principles of the actor-partner interdependence model using structural equation modeling. Significant actor effects were detected such that, for both men and women, one's own earlier sexual satisfaction predicted one's later relationship satisfaction. In contrast, one's own earlier relationship satisfaction did not significantly predict one's subsequent sexual satisfaction. Sexual satisfaction was a stronger predictor of subsequent relationship satisfaction for men than women. There were no significant partner effects. These results contribute to our theoretical understanding of sexuality and sexual satisfaction in the context of long-term relationships by providing support for theories that conceptualize sexual satisfaction as one factor that contributes to relationship satisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record

An Interpersonal Investigation of Sexual Self-Schemas

A sexual self-schema is a cognitive generalization about sexual aspects of the self. In the current study, we examined how an individual's sexual self-schema influenced the processing of self and partner related sexual information. Specifically, we investigated how sexual self-schemas related to own and partner sexual satisfaction and how they influenced perceptions of partner sexual satisfaction. Participants were 117 heterosexual couples in committed, long-term relationships. Both partners completed measures assessing their sexual self-schemas, their own sexual satisfaction, and perceptions of partner sexual satisfaction. Consistent with our predictions, own sexual schema was associated with own sexual satisfaction. For men, more positive sexual self-schemas were associated with greater sexual satisfaction, and for women, more negative sexual self-schemas were associated with lower sexual satisfaction. For both men and women, there was no significant association between own sexual self-schema and partner sexual satisfaction. Sexual self-schemas directly and indirectly influenced an individual's perception of the partner's sexual satisfaction, such that men and women with more positive sexual self-schemas rated their partners as more sexually satisfied, after controlling for the partner's self-reported level of sexual satisfaction. Our findings demonstrated that sexual self-schemas are relevant to own sexual satisfaction as well as the processing of interpersonally relevant sexual information, specifically one's perceptions of partner sexual satisfaction.

Understanding the phenomenon of sexual desire discrepancy in couples

Given that desire levels tend to fluctuate over time, discrepancies in sexual desire are an inevitable feature of sexual relationships. However, we know little about how such desire discrepancies relate to a couple's sexual satisfaction. Past studies that have examined the association between sexual desire discrepancy and sexual satisfaction in college/university samples have had inconsistent findings. Also, the results may not generalize to more established romantic relationships. The current study compared two different conceptualizations of sexual desire discrepancy; perceived sexual desire discrepancy was assessed by asking a participant to subjectively compare his/her own level of sexual desire to that of his/her partner. Actual desire discrepancy was computed by subtracting the female partner's score on a self-report measure of sexual desire from the male partner's score on the same measure. In Sample 1, we examined the relationship between actual sexual desire discrepancy and sexual satisfaction for 82 couples in committed long-term relationships. In Sample 2, we investigated the association between perceived sexual desire discrepancy and sexual satisfaction for 191 individuals in committed long-term relationships. Our results showed that higher perceived, but not actual, desire discrepancy was associated with lower sexual satisfaction. In addition, we found that perceived desire discrepancy outcomes differed when measured using different response scales. Findings highlight methodological issues to consider when measuring sexual desire discrepancy and extend the literature by showing that perceived sexual desire discrepancy is associated with sexual satisfaction for couples in committed long-term relationships. Limitations of the current study and implications for future research are discussed.

Perceptions of partner sexual satisfaction in heterosexual committed relationships

Sexual script theory implies that partners' ability to gauge one another's level of sexual satisfaction is a key factor in determining their own sexual satisfaction. However, relatively little research has examined how well partners gauge one another's sexual satisfaction and the factors that predict their accuracy. We hypothesized that the degree of bias in partner judgments of sexual satisfaction would be associated with quality of sexual communication. We further posited that emotion recognition would ameliorate the biases in judgment such that poor communicators with good emotion recognition would make less biased judgments of partner satisfaction. Participants were 84 married or cohabiting heterosexual couples who completed measures of their own and their partners' sexual satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, quality of communication about sexual issues within their relationships, and emotion recognition ability. Results indicated that both men and women tended to be accurate in perceiving their partners' levels of sexual satisfaction (i.e., partner perceptions were strongly correlated with self-reports). One sample t-tests indicated that men's perceptions of their partners' sexual satisfaction were biased such that they slightly underestimated their partners' levels of sexual satisfaction whereas women neither over- nor underestimated their partners' sexual satisfaction. However, the gender difference was not significant. Bias was attenuated by quality of sexual communication, which interacted with emotion recognition ability such that when sexual communication was good, there was no significant association between emotion recognition ability and bias, but when sexual communication was poor, better emotion recognition ability was associated with less bias.

Development and validation of the response to sexual difficulties scale

Leading models of sexual dysfunction, such as those proposed by Masters and Johnson (1970), Barlow (1986), and Janssen, Everaerd, Spiering, and Janssen (2000), emphasize the role of anxiety and self-monitoring in the development and persistence of sexual difficulties. These models have considerable explanatory power, but focus on the intrapersonal factors that yield anxiety and self-monitoring. Accounting for the interpersonal context in which sexual activity occurs is also likely to be important. For example, anxiety and self-monitoring may arise from negative, yet accurate, predictions about how one's partner will respond to one's own sexual functioning difficulties. The current studies describe the development and validation of the Response to Sexual Difficulties Scale (RSDS), which was designed to assess how one expects one's partner to respond to one's own sexual difficulties (RSDS-Own Difficulties) and how one expects oneself to respond to one's partner's sexual difficulties (RSDS-Partner Difficulties). Study 1 established the initial reliability and construct validity of the RSDS-Own Difficulties in a sample of adults in committed relationships (N = 59). Study 2 further examined the construct and discriminant validity of the RSDS Own Difficulties and Partner Difficulties in a sample of heterosexual couples (N = 87). Results indicated that both measures had strong internal consistency and were not redundant with measures of mood or personality. Scores on the RSDS-Own Difficulties and Partner Difficulties were strongly associated, indicating that reports of one's own response to one's partner's difficulty matched the partner's assessment of the reaction. RSDS scores predicted sexual functioning, relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and sexual communication. The RSDS may, then, provide a useful means of assessing the role of interpersonal factors in the development and persistence of sexual difficulties.

Marital satisfaction and communication behaviors during sexual and nonsexual conflict discussions in newlywed couples: a pilot study

The way couples communicate during conflict discussions has been found to be a reliable predictor of marital satisfaction. However, in previous research, there has been little experimental control over the selection of topics. The present study examined, in a sample of 15 newlywed couples, whether affective displays during the discussion of a sexual and a nonsexual conflict topic differentially predict current marital satisfaction. Communication behaviors were coded using an adaptation of the Specific Affect Coding System, resulting in composite "negative behavior" and "positive behavior" categories. Data were analyzed using multilevel modeling. Negative behaviors displayed during the nonsexual conflict discussions were not significantly related to concurrent self-reported relationship satisfaction. In contrast, for wives, negative behaviors displayed during the discussion of a sexual problem were significantly related to lower levels of relationship satisfaction. For the sexual and nonsexual conflict discussions, positive behaviors were positively associated with relationship satisfaction, although this effect did not reach statistical significance. Overall, the authors' findings emphasize the importance of incorporating sexual variables in the study of marriage. Furthermore, their study represents an important step in recognizing that marital research benefits from an examination of specific topics of conflict as a factor to consider in studies of marital functioning.

The marital context of depression: Research, limitations, and new directions☆

Despite improved recognition and treatment of mood disorders, understanding the mechanics of the interpersonal context of depressive disorders remains a vital area of scientific research. This paper reviews the findings on the marital context of depression by critically examining available empirical research on marital communication behaviors of depressed individuals. The specificity of the observed communication behaviors to depression versus marital distress or a general medical or psychiatric condition is examined. The paper also reviews the evidence on gender differences in marital communication of depressed individuals, depending on whether the husband or wife is depressed. The second part of the paper critically reviews three dominant interpersonal theories of depression as they refer to marital relationships. We discuss the need for theoretically-guided research and identify methodological and conceptual limitations of the current empirical literature, while highlighting the need for further theory development and refinement. Future interpersonal theories need to better account for depression epidemiology and the gender difference in rates of depression, as well as incorporate ideas from other theoretical perspectives.

A context-informed approach to the study of negative-feedback seeking in depression

The purpose of the current study was to examine the link between negative-feedback seeking (NFS) and depression using a behavioural task that addressed many of the limitations of existing measures of NFS, to use a remitted-depressive design to determine whether NFS is a temporary or stable feature of depression, and to examine the role of personality and contextual variables (e.g., marital quality, spousal characteristics) in NFS. Using a sample of 59 couples (12 wife currently depressed, 20 wife remitted-depressed, and 27 wife never-depressed), we designed a task that correlated with an established measure of NFS and was able to distinguish between non-depressed and currently depressed wives. Using this behavioural task, we found that NFS is stably associated with depression and that relationship and partner characteristics may protect depressed individuals from engaging in destructive interpersonal patterns.

A cross-cultural examination of the relation of marital communication behavior to marital satisfaction

Numerous studies have examined the communication behaviors of Western, primarily North American, couples and have demonstrated a robust and reliable association between marital satisfaction and couple communication. However, there has been relatively less attention given to the generalizability of these findings to non-Western couples. To address this issue, the authors conducted an observational study of marital communication among couples from 3 different cultural groups: 50 White American couples, 52 Pakistani couples in Pakistan, and 48 immigrant Pakistani couples in America. The results show that positive and negative communication behaviors were associated with marital satisfaction within each of the 3 cultural groups. However, the American group's marital satisfaction was more strongly related to marital communication behaviors than was that of the Pakistani group and, to a lesser extent, the immigrant group.

A cross-cultural analysis of the demand-withdraw marital interaction: Observing couples from a developing country

The authors used cross-cultural methodology to examine the demand-withdraw pattern of marital communication. In Western countries, women usually make more demands, whereas men are more likely to withdraw. But the recently advanced marital structure hypothesis suggests that this pattern can be altered by gender roles and beliefs, particularly in traditional marriages. To test such hypotheses, the authors conducted an observational study of marital communication across very different cultures, with varying levels of patriarchy (i.e., 50 White American couples, 52 Pakistani couples in Pakistan, and 48 immigrant Pakistani couples in America). Across cultures, demand-withdraw communication was related to marital distress, extending previous findings to new groups. However, the findings challenge the notion that demanding and withdrawing behaviors are inherently male or female; rather, the results point to the relevance of contextual factors, specifically gender power differences and acculturation, in understanding the demand-withdraw marital interaction pattern. Therapists working with foreign or immigrant couples must consider the cross-cultural generalizability of existing theories of marital communication.