De lunatico inquirendo: managing family inheritance across madness in eighteenth-century London

An 'inquisition' (or inquiry) held before a Justice of the Peace was the primary instrument for management of lunacy in eighteenth-century England. Yet its purpose was to protect wealth rather than the individual. The 1766 case book of Dr John Monro, London's leading doctor for madness, unexpectedly records a consultation that links two siblings who both had inquisitions. Nicholas Jeffreys' only son was attested lunatic in 1744: to circumvent inheritance through primogeniture, Jeffreys directed the family wealth to his last living child. One of his three daughters married Lord Camden, a former Lord Chancellor: after her and her second sister's deaths, the last-surviving sister was also placed under inquisition in 1780, to ensure the inheritance for his own family.

The Oldest Bryophyte Herbarium Specimens from Central Europe, Collected by M. E. Boretius in 1717: Taxonomy, Nomenclature, Datation and Ethnopharmacology

The WA Herbarium at the University of Warsaw houses a collection of plants created in 1717 by Matthew Ernest Boretius. They were gathered in former East Prussia, near Angerburg, now Węgorzewo (Poland). It is the oldest plant collection from this part of Europe. Boretius compiled the herbarium as a collection of all the surrounding plants, but their folk names (Polish and German) recorded in the herbarium confirm the ethnobiological or ethnopharmaceutical importance of some species. We identified bryophyte species and checked the accuracy of their original identifications recorded in the herbarium. We provided their Latin (scientific, pre-Linnaean) nomenclature together with German and Polish vernacular names. We contextualised this information within the history of the medicinal use of bryophytes around 1717, when the plant collection was created. We also investigated whether the specimens could have come from Northeastern Poland. Mosses and liverworts from the herbarium were identified nomenclaturally (by means of their original scientific polynomial names written on herbarium sheets) and taxonomically. The herbarium holds two species and one subspecies of liverwort and 27 species and one variety of moss. The accuracy of the original identifications was assessed, with a particular focus on the species considered medicinal at the time. We found that bryophytes were poorly known in the time of Boretius, which was the last period in bryology before the introduction of magnifying devices into this science (this crucial step was made by Dillenius in 1741). The vernacular names used in the herbarium were recorded for Marchantia polymorpha and Polytrichum commune-the only two species with confirmed medicinal use by the year 1717.

["The enlightened absolutism", Polizeistaat, Catherine II and formation of sanitary epidemiological legislation in the second half of XVIII century]

The second half of the 18th century went down in history as the era of "Enlightened absolutism". In Russia, it is associated with the reign of Empress Catherine II (1762-1796). In her political activities, Catherine II was guided by ideas of "regular" "police" state that were edited in accordance with new trends and new intellectual fashion. The monarch was now obliged to take care of "common good" and seek universal "decency" through establishing "lawful government". Besides, in order to achieve this goal, he had to use police as a tool of "beneficial" violence. The application of police measures supposed struggle with dangerous epidemics causing serious damage to population of the state. The article analyzes process of becoming of sanitary epidemiological legislation of Catherine II, placing it in broad context of "enlightened absolutism" policy.

Roma Religion: 1775 and 2018 Compared over Time

The objective of the present study was to compare the religiosity of the Roma in the 18th century with the present. In 1775 and 1776, Samuel Augustini ab Hortis detailed the way of life of the Roma community in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in his work "Von dem Heutigen Zustände, Sonderbaren Sitten und Lebensart, Wie Auch von Denen Übrigen Eigenschaften und Umständen der Zigeuner in Ungarn" (On the Contemporary Situation, Distinctive Manners and Way of Life, as Well as the Other Characteristics and Circumstances of Gypsies in Greater Hungary). A detailed content analysis of the part of his work dealing with religion was performed. Subsequently, in 2018, field research was conducted in the environment in which Samuel Augustini lived and worked. It involved six key informants, each representing a different municipality. Data collection was carried out over two periods: in the summer months of 2012-2013 and the winter period of 2018-2019. After the interviews with the key informants, more than 70 participants were included in semi-structured interviews through snowball sampling, and another 40 participants were included in two focus groups. The data was evaluated and content analysis was used to process the data. The findings confirm that both in the past and the present, the Roma community adopted the dominant religion of the host country. In the studied environments, the activities of the majority, present then and now in the Catholic Church, failed, and various other missionary movements, such as the Maranatha Mission, came to the fore. Membership in new religious movements resulted in social changes in marginalized Roma communities. However, they may not have only had positive effects. Various effects of their activities may be studied in the future.

A centuries-old manmade reef in the Caribbean does not substitute natural reefs in terms of species assemblages and interspecific competition

With increasing maritime activities in the proximity of coral reefs, a growing number of manmade structures are becoming available for coral colonisation. Yet, little is known about the sessile community composition of such artificial reefs in comparison with that of natural coral reefs. Here, we compared the diversity of corals and their competitors for substrate space between a centuries-old manmade structure and the nearest natural reef at St. Eustatius, eastern Caribbean. The artificial reef had a significantly lower species richness and fewer competitive interactions than the natural reef. The artificial reef was dominated by a cover of crustose coralline algae and zoantharians, instead of turf algae and fire corals on the natural reef. Significant differences in species composition were also found between exposed and sheltered sites on both reefs. Our study indicates that even a centuries-old manmade reef cannot serve as a surrogate for natural reefs.

Social Structure in a Roma Settlement: Comparison over Time

The objective of the present study was to compare the social structure and internal establishment of a Roma community in two historical periods: in the 18th century and the present. We analysed Samuel Augustini ab Hortis's work, "Von dem Heutigen Zustände, Sonderbaren Sitten und Lebensart, Wie Auch von Denen Übrigen Eigenschaften und Umständen der Zigeuner in Ungarn" (On the Contemporary Situation, Distinctive Manners and Way of Life, as Well as the Other Characteristics and Circumstances of Gypsies in Greater Hungary), written in 1775-1776. Using content analysis, we subsequently compared his findings with our recent data from analogous qualitative research in a geographically-defined area of north-eastern Slovakia, the same region in which Augustini lived. Data collection was intensely conducted in 2012-2013 and once more in 2017-2019. The qualitative methods included direct observation, semi-structured interviews and focus groups. Four key informants and more than 70 participants collaborated in the study. The greatest difference we observed compared to the 18th century was the absence of a leader of the community, a "vajda", whose status was taken over by a new social class of "entrepreneurs". The most vulnerable group of the segregated and separated Roma communities are the "degesa", the lowest social class. They face a phenomenon consisting of so-called triple marginalization: they live in one of the most underdeveloped regions of the country, they inhabit segregated settlements and they are excluded by their own ethnic group. The socioeconomic status of the richest classes has changed faces, while the socioeconomic status of the lowest has not. We found a misconception among helping professionals (e.g., social workers) regarding the homogeneity of the Roma community. This calls for more attention to the erroneous use of the ethnic-based approach in the helping professions.

Health care at the St. George Monastery at the Prague Castle in the 17th and 18th century

The article expresses main phenomena of the health care at the oldest Czech monastery - St. George Monastery at the Prague Castle - in the early modern period. The care is studied based on the period regulations, archive information about resident and local (para)medics, facilities, control or diseases. The medical problems had to be in the spotlight of the monastery inhabitants since every disease meant the paralysing of the nun community. In this respect, the monastery was not independent of its environs. The St. George nuns was often brought face to face with male (para)medics. Direction of the men within the monastery belonged to the main problems of the health care in the early modern female communities.

The beginnings of health libraries of the Czech Brothers Hospitallers in the 18th century

During some 150 years in the 17th and 18th centuries the network of convents with hospitals and pharmacies run by the Brothers Hospitallers was established in the Czech Lands. At that time the members of the Order made use of quite a large amount of early modern European health literature. Although the need of those books was closely connected with the main mission of the Order, their position in convents was marginal at the beginning and depended on the personality of individual friars. For a long time, the Czech Brothers Hospitallers were forced to use second-hand literature (even from the 16th century) which was not replaced by new volumes until the moment when the convents overcame the "birth pangs" of the founding years (end of the 18th century). The study deals with the facts that are mentioned above on the basis of the hitherto ignored archive sources coming from Prague, Kuks, Nové Město nad Metují, Prostějov, and Vizovice. Key words: brothers hospitallers pharmaceutical literature medical literature 17th century 18th century history of libraries pharmaceutical history.

Severe atherosclerosis in the natural mummy of Girolamo Macchi (1648-1734), "major writer" of Santa Maria della Scala Hospital in Siena (Italy)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

A small crypt in the Santissima Annunziata Church of Santa Maria della Scala Hospital in Siena (Italy) contained three well-preserved mummies, two of which, dated back to the 15th-16th century, were identified as Salimbene Capacci (1433-1497), Rector of the Hospital, and his wife, Margherita Sozzini (?-1511). The third mummy, dressed in clothes of the 17th century, was not initially identified.

METHODS

Accurate bibliographical, taphonomic and anthropological studies allowed the identification of the mummy of Girolamo Macchi, who lived between 1648 and 1734 and worked as "major writer", an accountant, for the Hospital. He was present when the corpses of the Rector and his wife were discovered in 1678 and, impressed by this finding, wanted to be buried in the same chapel after his death, which occurred at the age of 86. A complete study, including macroscopic, radiological, isotopic and histological analyses, was performed on the natural mummy of Girolamo.

RESULTS

Macroscopic investigation showed a large inguinoscrotal hernia and a good preservation of the internal organs. The circulatory system revealed severe atherosclerosis, with multiple calcifications stenosing the lumen of the vessels, in particular of the lumbar aorta and the iliac arteries. The diagnosis was confirmed by imaging techniques (3D Cone Beam Scan) and by histology.

CONCLUSIONS

This case confirms that atherosclerosis is also a disease of ancient times. The presence of atherosclerosis in pre-contemporary individuals could suggest that the disease may not only be uniquely characteristic of a specific diet or lifestyle, but it could be also an inherent component of human ageing.

Roma Housing and Eating in 1775 and 2013: A Comparison

We compared housing and the eating habits of Roma. Contemporary findings (2013) were compared with those from the first monothematic work on Roma (1775), which depicts their housing and eating habits, especially regarding the differences between social classes. Data were obtained from a journal (1775) and from semi-structured interviews (2013) with more than 70 Roma women and men who live in segregated and excluded settlements at the edges of villages or scattered among the majority. Data were collected in two villages and one district town in the Tatra region, where the data from the 1775 measurements originated. We used classical sociological theory to interpret the obtained data. The main findings showed differences between specific social classes then and now regarding housing, as well as the eating habits related to both conditions among the Roma in the Tatra region. The houses of rich Roma families did not differ from the houses of the majority population. The huts of the poorest inhabitants of settlements did not meet any hygiene standards. Typical Roma foods such as gója or marikľa were the traditional foods of Slovak peasants living in poverty in the country. We concluded that the housing and eating habits of the citizens of poor settlements located in the eastern parts of Slovakia are still similar to those of two centuries ago. The existing social exclusion may be explained partly from this finding.

'God grant it may do good two all': the madhouse practice of Joseph Mason, 1738-79

Private madhouses made a significant contribution to the development of psychiatric practices in eighteenth-century England. Joseph Mason of Bristol, proprietor of a madhouse at Stapleton and then at nearby Fishponds, was part of a dynasty of successful and respected mad-doctors. A deeply religious man, his Christian ethics constituted the guiding force in his work with patients and interactions with their relatives. He was also an astute man of business, who recognized that comfortable domestic surroundings and the achievement of recoveries would enhance his reputation and attract lucrative middle-class custom. His treatment approaches, illustrated in a 1763 diary, were eclectic and pragmatic, comprising various medicines, dietary regulation, graded social interactions, and the cultivation of individualized therapeutic relationships with his patients.

The 'Preliminary Discourse' to Methodical Nosology, by François Boissier de Sauvages (1772)

The eighteenth century witnessed an intense drive to classify diseases as natural kinds. Together with Linné, Macbride, Cullen, Sagar and Vogel, François Boissier de Sauvages, Professor of Medicine at Montpellier, was an important player in this process. In his monumental Nosologie Méthodique, Sauvages based his nosological system on the more botanico view proposed by Thomas Sydenham, namely, that human diseases (including mental ailments) should be classified in the same way as were plants. Classic Text No. 104 is an abridged translation of the Preliminary Discourse to the Nosologie Méthodique.

Charles Richard de Beauregard and the treatment of blennorrhagic urethral stenosis in Madrid in the 18th century: Advertising, secrecy and deception

OBJECTIVES

Describe the introduction of the treatment for blennorrhagic urethral stenosis in the city of Madrid in the 18th century by the French surgeon Charles de Beauregard, the formulations employed in the preparation of his personal «bougies», the advertising in the press, their marketing and distribution.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Nonsystematic review of the Madrid newspaper Gaceta de Madrid y Diario curioso, erudito, económico y comercial (Madrid Gazette, curious, erudite, financial and commercial) between 1759 and 1790. Review of the medical literature of the 18th century preserved in the Fondo Antiguo of the Biblioteca Histórica of Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Historical Resource of the Historical Library of the Complutense University of Madrid). A Google search of «Charles Richard de Beauregard».

RESULTS

Charles de Beauregard focused his professional work mainly on the treatment of the urethral sequela of blennorrhagia, phimosis and paraphimosis. He introduced to 18th century Spanish society (with purported originality and clear commercial interests) therapeutic methods based on lead acetate that had already been developed in France by Thomas Goulard.

CONCLUSIONS

The urethral sequela of diseases such as blennorrhagic urethritis, stenotic phimosis and paraphimosis were highly prevalent in 18th century Madrid and required complex solutions for the practice of urology of that era. Charles de Beauregard introduced innovative but not original treatments that were invasive but not bloody and that provided him with fame and social prestige. He advertised his professional activity and marketed his therapeutic products through advertisements submitted to the daily press (Madrid Gazette, Gaceta de Madrid).

Radiomorphometric indices of mandibular bones in an 18th century population

OBJECTIVE

To estimate four radiomorphometric indices of mandibular bones in an 18th century population sample, and possibly associate the findings with bone mass loss related to sex, age, nutritional habits and pathologies reflecting on the bone.

DESIGN

Thirty-six sculls (31 males, 5 females), recovered from the crypt of Požega Cathedral in Croatia were analyzed. Age estimation was based on tooth wear, and Eichner class was determined according to the number of occlusal supporting zones. The parameters in recording analogue orthopantomographs were set to constant current of 16 mA, exposure time of 14.1s, and voltage between 62-78 kV. Films were processed in an automatic dark chamber processor for 12 min, and digitized at 8-bit, 300 dpi. The thickness of the mandibular cortex was assessed below the mental foramen (MI), at antegonion (AI), at gonion (GI). Qualitative mandibular cortical index (MCI) was assessed.

RESULTS

Average values of MI, AI and GI were 3.97 ± 0.94 mm, 2.98 ± 0.56 mm, and 1.99 ± 0.55 mm, respectively. Statistically significant differences between males and females were found for AI right (p=0.014), GI left (p=0.010) and GI average (p=0.006), and were in all cases higher in males. There were no statistically significant differences between age groups for either index (p>0.05). Considering Eichner classification the differences were not significant for MI (p=0.422), AI (p=0.516), and GI (p=0.443), but in Eichner classes II, MCI was significantly higher (p=0.02).

CONCLUSION

The obtained data does not suggest generalized malnutrition or calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D deprivation in the historic population studied.

David Hartley's views on Madness: With an introduction by GE Berrios

The psychiatric aspects of David Hartley's writings have received less attention than the rest of his work. This Classic Text deals with Section VI of his Observations on Man …, namely, the 'Imperfections of the rational Faculty'. Hartley defines madness as an imperfection of reason that can be temporary or enduring. He makes use of his model of mental functioning to differentiate between eight clinical categories of madness, each representing a different pattern of vibrations of the nerves. Hartley developed this model based on Newton's theory of vibrations and, to explain the complexity of mental acts and entities, he combined it with his own version of the mechanism of Association of Ideas borrowed from John Locke. Much work needs to be done to identify the provenance of Hartley's nosology and nosography.

Medicinal mosses in pre-Linnaean bryophyte floras of central Europe. An example from the natural history of Poland

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The paper presents information about the earliest botanical work from Poland, Warsavia physice illustrata which takes bryophytes into account. It was elaborated by a German physician Christian Heinrich Erndtel and issued in 1730 in Dresden. That time understanding of bryophytes was imprecise and in many cases they were confused with lichens and club mosses.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bryophyte taxa polynomials (18 names) were identified using pre- and post-Linnaean botanical monographs from years 1590 to 1801. Their current names and pharmacological value are provided, as well as the old ethnobotanical data about bryophytes (cited from 18th-century sources).

RESULTS

Altogether 18 bryophyte species were identified from the vicinity of Warsaw (17 mosses and 1 liverwort). Some of them are still abundant in this area (for example Climacium dendroides, Plagiomnium undulatum and Polytrichum juniperinum) while some other are rare or extinct (for example Neckera crispa and Rhodobryum roseum).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the technical ability to observe specific microscopic differences among bryophytes, physicians of 18th century were hardly interested in using any of them as medicinal stock. It may be concluded that the competences in pre-Linnaean bryology did not put into practice using moss-derived materia medica of 18th century (the only exceptions were Fontinalis antipyretica and Polytrichum spp.).

'Febrile anxiety', by Robert James (1745): with an introduction by

The current class of psychiatric conditions called 'Anxiety Disorders' was constructed during the 20th century. Before 1900, its clinical components were conceptualized differently: some were not considered as diseases at all and others were looked after by physicians (not alienists). Whether it can be claimed that the complaints included under the 'Anxiety Disorders' have always existed, that is, constitute a form of 'natural kind', is a moot point that needs further historical investigation. This is because psychiatric complaints (mental symptoms) are no more than culturally configured segments of biological or symbolic information. Therefore, symptom-invariance or -perdurance can be explained by either biological or cultural factors. This can only be resolved by studying symptoms individually. Classic Text No. 97 shows how 'Anxiety' was conceptualized during the 18th century.

'Struensee's memoir on the situation of the King' (1772): Christian VII of Denmark

Christian VII of Denmark (1749-1808) was insane throughout his long reign. The royal physician, Johann Friedrich Struensée (1737-72), usurped his power. In 1771 the King appointed him Privy Cabinet Minister. Struensée revolutionized the whole administration of the Danish-Norwegian kingdom and had an adulterous relationship with the Queen, Caroline Mathilda, George III's sister. In January 1772 he was arrested, sentenced to death for lese-majesty and executed. During his confinement, he wrote a memoir on the King's condition, which he considered to be caused by, or the effect of, masturbation. In 1906 Christiansen interpreted it as a case of dementia praecox, i.e. schizophrenia. It is now suggested that Christian's insanity, like that of George III (his cousin), might have been due to porphyria - the 'royal malady', possibly inherited through his mother, Princess Louise of England or his father, King Frederik V, who died from an illness which retrospectively resembles a case of porphyria.

"A means of restoring the health and preserving the lives of His Majesty's subjects": Ireland's 18th-Century National Hospital System

In 1765, the Irish parliament enacted legislation that established a nationwide hospital network funded by a mixture of taxation and philanthropic donations. The county infirmaries had a similar ethos to the British and Irish voluntary hospitals; only those with an admission ticket were admitted. The legislation also regulated the qualifications of the County Infirmary Surgeons who were authorised to run the infirmaries. This was the first statutory nationwide network of care in Ireland. No other country in contemporary Europe passed similar legislation. The Irish parliamentarians and Charles Lucas in particular appear to have been the impetus for this innovative legislation.