Susceptibility to acidification of groundwater-dependent wetlands affected by water level declines, and potential risk to an early-breeding amphibian species

Eggs of the Western spadefoot toad (Pelobates cultripes) reached a 100% mortality in all 29 clutches deposited at a pH below 5.0 in a temporary pond of the Doñana National Park (SW Spain) throughout the wet season of 2006-2007. A similar trend was detected in a neighbouring pond. The proximity of these two ponds to a groundwater pumping area (<1.5km), prompted us to elucidate the possible links between the reduction in pond hydroperiod over past decades (1989-2008) and the decrease of groundwater pH-buffering capacity. The average hydroperiod had decreased by 4months since 1998-99 in the pond where the extensive egg mortality had occurred. The total alkalinity, and the Mg(2+)concentration had also significantly declined in the shallow water-table since 1998-99, from an average of 8.56 to 0.32meql(-1), and of 3.57 to 1.15meql(-1), respectively. This decline of the shallow groundwater buffering capacity could turn this pond more susceptible to the inorganic acidity associated with pyrite oxidation as the sediment S content was often above 0.03%. The initial ratio of S/Ca+Mg in the summer dry sediment was a good predictor of pore-water pH on re-wetting after desiccation (r(2)=0.802, p<0.01). Therefore, this ratio can give some anticipation to mitigate the impact of acidity on toad hatching before these temporary ponds are reflooded on the next wet season. Our results suggest that the long-term damage to pond water levels can trigger a potential risk of soil acidification in the presence of iron-sulphide minerals.

Weight-of-evidence approach in assessment of ecotoxicological risks of acid sulphate soils in the Baltic Sea river estuaries

Acidity and leaching of metals from acid sulphate soils (ASSs) impair the water quality of receiving surface waters. The largest ASS areas in Europe are found in the coasts of the northern Baltic Sea. We used weight-of-evidence (WoE) approach to assess potential risks in 14 estuary sites affected by ASS in the Gulf of Finland, northern Baltic Sea. The assessment was based on exposure and effect profiles utilizing sediment and water metal concentrations and concurrent pH variation, sediment toxicity tests using the luminescent bacterium Vibrio fischeri and the midge Chironomus riparius, and the ecological status of benthic macroinvertebrate communities. Sediment metal concentrations were compared to national sediment quality criteria/guidelines, and water metal concentrations to environmental quality standards (EQSs). Hazard quotients (HQs) were established for maximum aluminium, cadmium and zinc concentrations at low pH based on applicable US EPA toxicity database. Sediment metal concentrations were clearly elevated in most of the studied estuaries. The EQS of cadmium (0.1 μg/l) was exceeded in 3 estuaries out of 14. The pH-minima were below the national threshold value (5.5) between good and satisfactory water quality in 10 estuaries. V. fischeri bioluminescence indicated toxicity of the sediments but toxic response was not observed in the C. riparius emergence test. Benthic invertebrate communities were deteriorated in 6 out of 14 sites based on the benthic invertebrate quality index. The overall ecotoxicological risk was assessed as low in five, moderate in three and high in five of the estuary sites. The risk assessment utilizing the WoE approach indicated that harmful effects of ASSs are likely to occur in the Baltic Sea river estuaries located at the ASS hotspot area.

A multi-scale comparison of dissolved Al, Fe and S in a boreal acid sulphate soil

Acid sulphate (AS) soils are most prevalent in the tropics, but the acidic discharge from cultivated AS soils also threatens water bodies under boreal conditions. Feasible options to reduce the acid load are needed. In this study, the groundwater of an AS field was monitored for 3.5 years, and the efficiency of waterlogging in mitigating the environmental risks caused by acidic discharge was investigated in a 2.5-year experiment with 10 monolithic lysimeters taken from the same field. In order to unravel the transferability of the results from lysimeters to the field scale, the Al, Fe and S concentrations in discharge water from the lysimeters were compared with those in the groundwater of the AS field (pedon and field scale), and in pore water (pedon and horizon scale). In the waterlogged bare lysimeters (HWB), the Al, Fe and S concentrations in discharge waters were broadly similar to those measured in the groundwater and followed the changes in the pore water. In the waterlogged cropped (reed canary grass, Phalaris arundinacea) lysimeters (HWC), in contrast, the discharge waters were markedly higher in Fe and lower in Al than the groundwater in the field. This outcome was attributable to the reduction of Fe(3+) to the more soluble Fe(2+) and the reduction-induced increase in pH, which enhanced the formation of Al(3+) hydroxy species. Lowering of the water table (LWC) caused soil ripening, which resulted in increased saturated hydraulic conductivity and porosity and enhanced the oxidation of sulphidic materials and acid formation. The responses of Al, Fe and S in drainage waters from HWC and LWC lysimeters resembled previous findings in AS soils. Based on this and the similarity between dissolved element concentrations in the discharge water of HWB lysimeters and groundwater in the field, we conclude that our monolithic lysimeters yielded realistic results concerning the efficiency of various methods in mitigating environmental risks related to cultivated AS soils.

Response of pore water Al, Fe and S concentrations to waterlogging in a boreal acid sulphate soil

Environmental hazards caused by acid sulphate (AS) soils are of worldwide concern. Among various mitigation measures, waterlogging has mainly been studied in subtropical and tropical conditions. To assess the environmental relevance of waterlogging as a mitigation option in boreal AS soils, we arranged a 2.5-year experiment with monolithic lysimeters to monitor changes in the soil redox potential, pH and the concentrations of aluminium (Al), iron (Fe) and sulphur (S) in pore water in response to low and high groundwater levels in four AS soil horizons. The monoliths consisted of acidic oxidized B horizons and a reduced C horizon containing sulphidic material. Eight lysimeters were cropped (reed canary grass, Phalaris arundinacea) and two were bare without a crop. Waterlogging was conducive to reduction reactions causing a slight rise in pH, a substantial increase in Fe (Fepw) and a decrease in Al (Alpw) in the pore water. The increase in Fepw was decisively higher in the cropped waterlogged lysimeters than in the bare ones, which was attributable to the microbiologically catalysed reductive dissolution of poorly ordered iron oxides and secondary minerals. In contrast to warmer climates, Fepw concentrations remained high throughout the experiment, indicating that the reduction was poised in the iron range, while sulphate was not reduced to sulphide. Therefore, the precipitation of iron sulphide was negligible in the environment with a low pH and abundant with poorly ordered Fe oxides. Increased Fe in pore water counteracts the positive effects of waterlogging, when water is flushed from fields to watercourses, where re-oxidation of Fe causes acidity and oxygen depletion. However, waterlogging prevented further oxidation of sulphidic materials and decreased Alpw to one-tenth of the initial concentrations, and even to one-hundredth of the levels in the low water table lysimeters.

The microbial communities and potential greenhouse gas production in boreal acid sulphate, non-acid sulphate, and reedy sulphidic soils

Acid sulphate (AS) soils along the Baltic coasts contain significant amounts of organic carbon and nitrogen in their subsoils. The abundance, composition, and activity of microbial communities throughout the AS soil profile were analysed. The data from a drained AS soil were compared with those from a drained non-AS soil and a pristine wetland soil from the same region. Moreover, the potential production of methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide from the soils was determined under laboratory conditions. Direct microscopic counting, glucose-induced respiration (GIR), whole cell hybridisation, and extended phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis confirmed the presence of abundant microbial communities in the topsoil and also in the deepest Cg2 horizon of the AS soil. The patterns of microbial counts, biomass and activity in the profile of the AS soil and partly also in the non-AS soil therefore differed from the general tendency of gradual decreases in soil profiles. High respiration in the deepest Cg2 horizon of the AS soil (5.66 μg Cg(-1)h(-1), as compared to 2.71 μg Cg(-1)h(-1) in a top Ap horizon) is unusual but reasonable given the large amount of organic carbon in this horizon. Nitrous oxide production peaked in the BCgc horizon of the AS and in the BC horizon of the non-AS soil, but the peak value was ten-fold higher in the AS soil than in the non-AS soil (82.3 vs. 8.6 ng Ng(-1)d(-1)). The data suggest that boreal AS soils on the Baltic coast contain high microbial abundance and activity. This, together with the abundant carbon and total and mineral nitrogen in the deep layers of AS soils, may result in substantial gas production. Consequently, high GHG emissions could occur, for example, when the generally high water table is lowered because of arable farming.